lililllli ii. :,i .Ml. iiiiliiiiiiiiiir itlri %\m\ i CD ! nj I -D CD i-O D □ CD O CD THE BAHAMA ISLANDS THE GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE THE BAHAMA ISLANDS EDITED BY GEORGE BURBANK SHATTUCK, Ph. D. Associate Professor o/ Physiographic Geology in the Johns Hopkins University THE JOHNS HOPKINS PRESS (Iten? "Porft THE MACMILLAN COMPANY LONDON ; MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 1905 All rights reserved Copyright, 1005, by THE GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE. ^6c jfrte&cntvafb Company BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A. OFFICERS OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE Bernard N. Baker. treasurer. Egbert Garrett. Daniel C. Oilman. Charles J. Bonaparte. Waldo Newcomer. Ira Eemsen. Charles K. Lord. Bernard N. Baker. Eugene Levering. Lawrason Eiggs. Fabian Franklin. E. Brent Keyser. George E. Gaither. William B. Clark. Blanch ARD Eandall. Harry F. Eeid. president. Daniel C. Gilman. vice-presidents. Eev. John F. Goucher. Lawrason Eiggs. TRUSTEES. secretary. George B. Shattuck. James H. Van Sickle. Egbert Garrett. C. Morton Stewart, Jr. Bernard C. Steiner. Gilbert Fraser. George A. Von Lingen. Antonio C. de Magalhaes. Joseph E. Foard. Egbert Eamsay. Eev. John F. Goucher. George Cator. Walter W. Abell. Egbert W. Wood. George B. Shattuck. SCIENTIFIC STAFF OF THE BAHAMA EXPEDITION George B. Shattuck, Clement A. Penrose, George B. Shattuck, Benjamin L. Miller, OEOLOOY. Director. Surgeon and Vice-Director. In charge. Associate. TIDES, TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM, CLIMATOLOGY. Oliver L. Fassig, In charge. James E. Routh, Assistant. SOILS. Charles N. Mooney, J. C. Britton, . E. T. Hughes, . BOTANY. William C. Coker, C. A. Shore, E. M. Hanes, . T. Homer Coffin. Barton A. Bean, A, H. Baldwin, Joseph S. Lewis, " . James B. G. Custis, MOSQUITOES. FISHES. batraghians, reptiles, mammals, birds. Joseph H. Riley, Samuel H. Derickson, MEDICINE. Clement A. Penrose, Herbert P. Cole, Edward B. Beasley, T. Homer Coffin, Frank Gillmore, James M. Wright. In charge. Assistant. Assistant. In charge. Assistant. Assistant. In charge. Artist. Assistant. Assistant. In charge. Assistant. In charge. Assistant. Assistant. Assistant. Photographer. HISTORY. GENERAL ASSISTANTS. Alexander Randall. Israel B. Brodie. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL To Dr. Daniel C. Gilman, President of The Geographical Society of Baltimore. Sir. — I herewith transmit to you a report of the Bahama Expedition sent out by the Geographical Society of Baltimore on June 1, 1903. This, the first publication of the Society, contains sixteen distinct chapters on various subjects pertaining to the Bahama Islands. These papers have been prepared by specialists, most of whom were present on the Expedition and directed the work on their respective investigations. The material which this volume contains is largely the result of researches carried forward on the Expedition, but there are certain chapters which deal principally with facts discovered by earlier investigators. The object of these chapters is to sum- marize this material and thus increase the general usefulness of the publi- cation. The appearance of this book, at a time when the certainty of the Panama Canal is drawing the attention of the civilized world to the Ameri- can Mediterranean, seems most opportune; and it is hoped that the facts here published may be instrumental, if only in a small degree, in causing the Bahama Islands to share in tlie renewed prosperity which is destined to over- take the West Indies when the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans are united. Trusting that this volume may meet with your approval, I remain, Very respectfully, George Burbakk Shattuck, Director of the Baliama Expedition. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, January 2, 1905. CONTENTS PAGE. PREFACE xxix PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. By George BuRBAXK Shattuck, Ph. D., and Bexjamix LeRoy Miller, Ph. D 3 Introductiox 3 Previous Ixvestigatiox 4 Physiographic Features 7 SuB.ERiAL Division 7 Relation with Surrounding Regions 7 Contour and Slope 8 Surface 9 Distribution of Islands 11 Character of Surface 12 SuB.ERiAL Division 12 Classification 12 Geological Features 14 iEoLiAN Deposits 14 Aqueous Deposits 15 Organic Deposits 16 Structure and Age 17 Erosion 17 Topographic History 19 FOSSILS OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, WITH A LIST OF THE NON- MARINE MOLLUSKS. By William H. Dall, A. M., Sc. D 23 Introduction 23 List of Stations and the Species Collected at Each of Them 24 The Landshell Fauna of the Bahama Islands 29 List of Bahama Landshells 39 Marine Fossils of the Bahamas 43 The Fauna of the " Salt Pans " 45 Explanation of Plates 46 TIDES AND BENCH MARKS AT NASSAU, NEW PROVIDENCE. By L. P. Shidy 51 Introduction 51 xii CONTENTS PAGE. Description of Bench Marks 52 Bench Mark No. 1 52 Bench Mark No. 2 52 Bench Mark No. 3 52 Tides at Nassau 53 Tide Record 53 First Reduction 73 Harmonic Constants 90 Recapitulation 94 Annual Variation in Mean Sea Level at Nassau 95 MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS IN THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. By Oliver L. Fassig, Ph. D 99 Introduction 99 Stations Occupied 99 Nassau: Old Government House 100 Hog Island, on the North Side of the Harbor of Nassau 100 Nassau : Public Square 101 Watlings Island, Cockburn Town 101 Clarence Town, Clarence Harbor, Long Island 102 HoPETOWN, Elbow Cay, Abaco 102 Earlier Values of Magnetic Elements at Stations in the Bahajias. 102 Results of Magnetic Observations made by the Bahama Expedition OF THE Geographical Society of Baltimore in 1903 103 Directions for the Magnetic Work of the Bahama Expedition 104 Astronomical Observations ■ 104 Magnetic Declination Observations 105 With compass needle belonging to Dip Circle 56/4440 105 With compass needle of Theodolite 106 Dip Observations 106 Relative Intensity and Dip Observations 107 Miscellaneous Information 108 General Information 108 CLIMATE OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. By Oliver L. Fassig, Ph. D Ill Introduction HI Climate as a Whole 112 Temperature 113 Absolute Extremes of Temperature at Nassau 114 THE BAHAMA ISLANDS Xlll PAGE. Extremes of Tempekature at Cat Cay 115 Comparative Temperature Data 115 Relative Humidity 116 Clouds axd Sunshine 117 Rainfall 117 Wind Direction 118 Wind Velocity 119 Thunderstorms 120 Hurricanes 120 Frequency of Hurricanes 121 Law of Hxirricanes 123 Theoretical importance of the law of recurving 123 The law of general routes or geographical zones pursued by Hur- ricanes 125 Law of the relative velocity of translation 125 EXPLORATION OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE AT NASSAU, NEW PROVIDENCE, BY MEANS OF KITES. By Oliver L. Fassig, Ph. D. 129 Introduction 129 Description of Flights 130 Temperature Results 136 Decrease in Pressure 138 Relative Humidity 138 Tabulation of Observations 139 SOILS OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. By Charles N. Mooney, S. B 147 Introduction 147 Agricultural Development 147 Climate 151 Geology 152 Soil Types 153 Coral Sand 155 Bahama Black Loam 157 Bahama Stony Loam 161 Bahama Red Loam 163 Bahama Marl 167 Brackish Swamps 169 Bahama White Marl 171 Methods of Cultivation and Cropping 172 xiv CONTEXTS PAGE. Important Crop and Soil Prodlems 174 Pineapples 175 Citrus Fruits 178 Bahama Hemp or Sisal 180 Conclusion 181 VEGETATION OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. By William C. Coker, Ph. D. 185 Introduction 185 Sketch of Botanical Explorations in Bahamas 186 Composition and Relationships of the Bahama Flora 190 Distribution of the Bahama Flora 194 Indigenous Trees and Shrubs Useful for their Wood or Leaves 201 Indigenous Medicinal Plants 206 Indigenous Fruits 207 Cultivated Fruits 209 Trees Cultivated for Ornament 212 Botanical Formations in the Bahama Islands 214 Plant Formations 216 New Providence 216 Sand-Strand Formation 216 The Ipomea pes-caprae Association 217 The Uniola-Tournefortia Association 217 Pithecolobium-Salmea Association 217 Erithalis-Reynosia (or littoral Sand-coppice) Association 218 The Silver Palm Association 218 Fresh-marsh Formation 218 Pine-barren Formations 219 The Wet-barrens 219 The Dry-barrens 219 Coppice Formations 220 High-coppice Formation 220 Low-coppice Formation 221 Salt Marsh Formation 222 Rocky-shore Formation 223 Mangrove Cay, Andros 223 Green Cay 224 Current Settlement, Eleuthera 225 Spanish Wells, George Island 226 Gregory Town, Eleuthera 227 THE BAHAMA ISLANDS XV PAGE. Governors Harbor, Eleuthera 230 Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera 231 Powells Point, Eleuthera 232 Arthurs Town, Cat Island 233 Port Nelson, Ruji Cay 233 Watlings Island 235 Sand-Strand Formation 235 Tournefortia-Suriana Association 235 Distichlis-Ambrosia Association 235 Cocoa-Plum Association 236 Inodes-Lantana Association 236 Fresh-Marsh Formation 236 Conocarpus-Flat Formation 236 Low-coppice Formation 237 Conocarpus-Mangrove Formation 237 HiGH-CoppiCE Formation 237 Clarence Harbor, Long Island 239 Which Point, Abaco 241 List of Plants Collected 242 Explanation of Plates 268 MOSQUITOES OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS (INTRODUCTION). By L. 0. Howard, Ph. D 273 MOSQUITOES OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS (DISCUSSION). By T. Homer Coffin 275 Introduction 275 Description of Stations 275 Nassau, New Providence 276 Andros 276 Green Cay 277 Spanish Wells, George Island 277 Harbor Island, Eleuthera 277 Current Settlement, Eleuthera 277 Governors Harbor, Eleuthera 277 Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera 278 Powell Point, Eleuthera 278 Arthurs Town, Cat Island 278 Port Nelson, Rum Cay 278 Watlings Island 278 XVI CONTENTS P'AGE. Clarence Habbor, Long Island 278 Descriptions of Important Mosquitoes 279 FISHES OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. By Barton A. Bean 293 Introduction 293 Annotated List of Bahama Fishes 295 BATRACHIANS AND LAND REPTILES OP THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. By Leonhard Stejneger 329 Introduction 329 Systematic and Nomenclatural Notes 330 Batrachians 330 Reptiles 331 Lizards 331 Snakes . . » 335 Distribution of Batrachians and Reptiles (except Marine Turtles) Occurring in the Bahama Islands 338 Relations and Origins of the Bahama Herpetological Fauna 339 Relations to Florida 339 Relations to Cuba. 340 Relations to Haiti 341 Relations to Rum Cay and Watlings Island 342 Conclusions 343 BIRDS OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. By Joseph H. Riley 347 Introduction 347 Ornithological Explorations 347 Notes on the Zoogeographical Position of the Bahama Islands 350 List of Bahama Birds 358 MAMMALS OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. By Gerrit S. Miller, Jr 371 Introduction 371 Annotated List of Species 372 Rats 372 Capbomys 373 Raccoons 376 Bats 379 SANITARY CONDITIONS OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. By Clement A. Penrose, M. D 387 Introduction 387 Medical and Surgical Equipment 389 THE BAHAMA ISLANDS XVll PAGE. Methods of Work 390 Important Diseases Excountered 392 Tuberculosis 392 Venereal Diseases 393 Syphilis 393 Gonorrhea 393 Malaria 393 Rheumatism and Lumbago 394 Gastric and Intestinal Troubles 394 Diseases of the Eye 395 Filariasis : 396 Elephantiasis 398 Leprosy 399 Forms of Leprosy 399 Bacillus of Leprosy 400 Transmission of Leprosy 401 Treatment of Leprosy 402 Status of the Leper in the Bahamas 403 Recommendations regarding Leprosy 404 Yellow Fever 405 Polydactylism 405 AiNHUM OR Ring-toe 406 Talipes or Club-foot 407 Locomotor-Ataxia 407 Pesplanus or Flat-foot 408 Boils, Carbuncles and Infections 408 Degeneracy 409 History of Spanish Wells 409 History of Hopetown 410 Explanation of Chart 410 Special Cases of Degeneracy 411 Cause of this Degeneracy 412 Recommendations regarding Hopetown 414 Treatment 414 Government Hospitals 415 HISTORY OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, WITH A SPECIAL STUDY OF THE ABOLITION OF SLAVERY IN THE COLONY. By James M. Wright 419 Introduction 419 Historical Sketch of the Bahamas prior to the Nineteenth Century. . 420 XVlll CONTENTS I'AGE. Amelioeatiox of the Coxditiox of the Slaves 427 Abolition of the Slave-trade 427 Registration of the Slaves 428 Debates in Parliament i 430 Protest of the Bahamas 432 The Wylly Affair 433 The " Healing Act " 437 Adoption of the Registration System 439 Demands of the English Public 441 Attitude of the Bahamas 444 Adoption of a New Slave Code 445 Legal Rights of Master and Slave 446 Rights and Duties of the Slave 446 Rights and Duties of the Master 452 Operation of the Registration System 457 The Abolition of Slavery 457 Governor Sir James Smyth 458 Attempt to give effect to Reforms 458 Flogging of Female Slaves 460 Elections of 1832 464 Governor Smyth and the Slaveholders 468 The Governor's Council 470 Attempt to Educate the Africans 471 The Out-islands 472 Law against Cruelty to Slaves not Enforced 473 Removing Slaves from one Island to the other 476 SLxWE Trade Survives 478 Court Martial of Major Nicolls 480 Abolition of Slavery by Parliament 481 Balfour as Lieutenant-Governor 483 The Assembly Convened Again 484 Struggle over Executive Functions 485 Provision for the Coming Changes 490 Period of the Apprenticeship System 492 A New Regime Instituted 492 Classes of Apprentices 493 Legal Status of Apprentices 495 TPIE BAHAMA ISLANDS XIX PAGE. Rights and Privileges of the Apprentice 495 Maintenance 495 Personal Rights 495 Rights pertaining to Contracts 497 Marital and Family Rights 498 Corporal Punishment 499 Manumission 499 Other Rights 500 Rights of Employer 500 Property in the Services of the Apprentice 500 Right to Return Runaways 501 Prohibitions on Apprentices 502 Children 502 The Special Magistracy 503 Reforms in the Magistracy 505 Duties of Special Magistrates 507 Operations of Apprenticeship System 509 Complaints 512 Punishments 512 Reform in the General Court 514 Capth'es from Slave Ships 515 Relations of the Branches of the Government 520 Termination of Apprenticeship System 525 The Period 1838 to 1848 528 The Opposition Party and the Government 528 Election of Speaker 531 Government Prevails 533 Separation of the Councils 534 Cockburn becomes Governor 535 Temporary Administration 536 Ecclesiastical Affairs 539 The Dissenters 541 The Education of the Negroes 543 Question of the Control of the Schools 544 A Contest for Religious Equality 549 Land System 552 Quit Rents 553 Failure of Close Settlements 554 Changes Made by Cockburn 555 Commutation of Quit Rents 557 XX CONTENTS tAGE. Salt Ponds 558 Regulations of 1781 559 Introduction of Long Leases . . . , 561 Enslavement of Bahama Negroes . '. 563 Condition of Labor 565 Quiet reigns in the Colony 566 Governor Mathew and Archdeacon Trew 567 Later History of the Bahamas 569 The Separation of the Turks Lslands from the Bahamas 569 The Public Burial-grounds 571 The Bahamas a Bishopric 573 Commercial Conditions 573 Blockade-running 573 State of Finances 577 DiSENDOWMENT OF THE ESTABLISHED ChURCH 578 The Educational Establishment 579 Conclusion 582 SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS RELATING TO THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. By George Burbank Shattuck, Ph. D 587 Introduction 587 Area and Population 589 Currency and Banking Facilities 590 Facilities of Communication 591 Important Industries 592 The Sponge-fishery 592 Agricultural Pursuits 593 Salt 594 Volume of Trade 594 Government 595 Condition of People 597 Criminality 598 Religious Conditions 598 Education 599 ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE. FACING PAGE. I. Boiigainvillea in a Nassau Garden 3 II. Physiographic and Geologic Views 8 Fig. 1. — View of Sail Rocks showing Marine Erosion. Fig. 2. — View of Highway on Summit of Blue Ridge, New Providence. III. Physiographic and Geologic Views 14 Fig. 1. — View Showing Surface of Wave Eroded Limestone, Sail Rocks. Fig. 2. — View of Wave Eroded Limestone, Showing Casts of Roots and Other Vegetable Remains, Sail Rocks. IV. Physiographic and Geologic Views 18 Fig. 1. — View Showing Cross-bedded Structure in ^olian Limestone at Nassau. Fig. 2. — Nearer View of Cross-bedded Structure in .li]olian Limestone at Nassau. V. Physiographic and Geologic Views 24 Fig. 1. — View of Harold Pond, New Providence, a Typical Brackish Water Lake. Fig. 2. — View of Great Lake, Watlings Island, with Foam blown in Heaps on the Beach. VI. Physiographic and Geologic Views 30 Fig. 1. — View showing Thin-bedded Limestone, Green Cay. Fig. 2. — View showing a Recemented Boulder Rampart, Green Cay. VII. Physiographic and Geologic Views 36 Fig. 1. — View showing Boulder Rampart, Green Cay. Fig. 2. — Nearer View of Boulder Rampart. VIII. Physiographic and Geologic Views 42 Fig. 1. — View of Raised Coral Reef, Overlaid by .^olian Limestone, Green Cay. Fig. 2. — Nearer View of Raised Coral Reef. IX. Physiographic and Geologic Views 46 Fig. 1. — View of Ocean Hole, Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera. Fig. 2.— View of Old Sea-cliff with Cavern, New Providence. X. Map Showing Bahama Islands and Adjacent Land Masses 52 XI. Bahama Fossils 58 XII. Bahama Fossils 64 XIII. Bahama Fossils 70 XIV. Physical Apparatus '^^ Fig. 1. — Kew-Casella Dip Circle. Fig. 2. — Sexton Tide Gauge. XXll ILLUSTRATIOXS PLATE. FACING PAGE. XV. Views Illustrating Work on Tides and Bench Marks * 82 Fig. 1. — View of Boat Camber and Tide Gauge House, Nassau. Fig. 2. — View of Bench Mark No. 1 and Monument, Nassau. XVI. Physical Apparatus 88 Fig. 1. — Marvin Meteorograph. Published by Courtesy of Maryland Weather Service. Fig. 2. — Kite and Marvin Meteorograph. Published by Cour- tesy of Maryland Weather Service. XVII. Views Illustrating Work on Climate 94 Fig. 1. — Flying Kites at Nassau. Fig. 2. — View of Thunderstorm North of Abaco. XVIII. Tracks of West Indian Hurricanes, May, 1878-1903 100 XIX. Tracks of West Indian Hurricanes, June, 1878-1903 106 XX. Tracks of West Indian Hurricanes, July, 1878-1903 112 XXI. Tracks of West Indian Hurricanes, August, 1878-1903 118 XXII. Tracks of West Indian Hurricanes, September, 1878-1903 124 XXIII. Tracks of West Indian Hurricanes, October, 1878-1903 130 XXIV. Tracks of West Indian Hurricanes, November, 1878-1903 136 XXV. Views Illustrating Agricultural Conditions 148 Fig. 1. — View of Vegetation Looking North from Summit of Blue Ridge, New Providence. Fig. 2. — View of Mature Pineapple Field, New Providence. XXVI. Views Illustrating Agricultural Conditions 154 Fig. 1. — View of Banana Palm in Bloom, Nassau. Fig. 2. — View of Cocoanut Grove, Nassau. XXVII. Views Illustrating Agricultural Conditions 160 Fig. 1. — View of Pine Barrens. Fig. 2. — View of Jungle Growth, New Providence. XXVIII. Reconnaissance Map Showing Distribution of Soils on New Providence 164 XXIX. Reconnaissance Map Showing Distribution of Soils on Eleuthera 168 XXX. Reconnaissance Map Showing Distribution of Soils on Long Island and Rum Cay 172 XXXI. Reconnaissance Map Showing Distribution of Soils on Cat Island 176 XXXII. Reconnaissance Map Showing Distribution of Soils on San Salvador 180 XXXIII. Views Illustrating Vegetation 186 Fig. 1. — Tamarind Tree (Tamarindus indica), Nassau. Fig. 2. — Pawpaw Tree (Carica papaya) in Fruit, Nassau. XXXIV. Views Illustrating Vegetation 192 Fig. 1. — "Almond" Tree {Terminalia catappa) , Nassau. Fig. 2. — Fig Tree {Ficus sapotifolia) , Nassau. XXXV. Views Illustrating Vegetation 198 Fig. 1. — Royal Fa\m { Roy stonia regf/a) in a Garden at Nassau. Fig. 2. — Pine Tree (Pinus bahamensis), Surrounded by Silver Palm (Thrinax bahamensis) , New Providence. THE BAHAMA ISLANDS XXlll PLATE. XXXVI. XXXVII. XXXVIII. XXXIX. XL. XLI. XLII. XLIII. XLIV. XLV. XLVI. FACING PAGE. Views Illustrating Vegetation 204 Fig. 1. — Lignum Vitse Trees (Guaiacum sanctum). Showing the Effect of Prevailing Winds, Clarence Harbor." Fig. 2. — Sand-box Tree (Hura crepitans) , Nassau. Views Illustrating Vegetation 210 Fig. 1. — Vegetation of a Fresh Water Marsh with Thatch Palm {l7io(les palmetto) in Center, New Providence. Fig. 2. — Forest Showing Pines with " May-pole " Fern (Pteridium caudatum) beneath, Abaco. Views Illustrating Vegetation 216 Pig. 1. — Typical High Coppice in the Interior of New Providence. Fig. 2. — Mixed Growth of Pines, Silver Palms (Thrinax ha- hamensis) and Deciduous Trees, New Providence. Views Illustrating Vegetation 222 Fig. 1. — Logwood Tree (Hicmatoxylon campecManum) /Cur- rent Settlement, Eleuthera. Fig. 2. — Fig Tree (Ficus jacquinifolia) in Center, Man- grove Cay, Andros. Views Illustrating Vegetation 228 Fig. 1. — "Bamboo Tree" (Agave rigida) , Gregory Town, Eleuthera. Fig. 2. — Epiphytic Plant {Tillandsia recurvata) on Strump- fia maritima in an open Brackish Flat, Nassau. Views Illustrating Vegetation 234 Fig. 1. — Pigeon Plum Tree {Coccolobis laurifoUa) , Clarence Harbor, Long Island. Fig. 2. — Mangrove Ti-ees (RMzopJiora mangle), Great Lake, Watlings Island. Views Illustrating Vegetation 240 Fig. 1. — Vegetation on Rocky Coast, New Providence. Fig. 2. — Vegetation on Sandy Shore, New Providence. Views Illustrating Vegetation 246 Fig. 1. — Vegetation on Sandy and Rocky Shore, Watlings Island. Fig. 2. — Vegetation on Rocky Beach, Watlings Island. Views Illustrating Vegetation 252 Fig. 1. — Vegetation on Sandy Beach, New Providence. Fig. 2. — Vegetation on Sandy Beach, Green Cay. Views Illustrating Vegetation 258 Fig. 1. — White Lilies {Hymenocallis arenicola) in Flower, West Shore, Eleuthera. Fig. 2. — Vegetation on Rocky Shore, near Clarence Harbor, Long Island. Views Illustrating Vegetation 264 Fig. 1. — Vegetation on Border of Salt Pan, Rum Cay. Fig. 2. — Vegetation in Meadow, Water Cay, Long Island. XXIV ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE. XLVII. XLVIII. XLIX. LI. LII. LIII. LIV. LV. LVI. LVII. LVIII. LIX. LX. LXI. LXII. LXIII. LXIV. LXV. FACING PAGE. Views Illustrating Vegetation 269 Fig. 1. — Vegetation on Sandy Beach, New Providence. Fig. 2. — Vegetation on Sandy Beach, Green Cay. Bahama Mosquitoes 276 Fig. 1. — Stegomyia fasciata (Fabr.) (Yellow-Fever Mosquito). Fig. 2. — Wyeomyia smithii (Coq.). Bahama Mosquitoes 280 Fig. 1. — Gulex confirviatus (Arrib.). Fig. 2. — Gulex jamaicensis Theob. Bahama Mosquitoes 284 Fig. 1. — Culex restuans Theob. Fig. 2. — Culex tceniorynchus Wied. Bahama Mosquitoes 288 Fig. 1. — Culex territans Walk. Fig. 2. — Culex trivitattus Coq. Rhypticus bistrispinosus (Mitchill) (Soap Fish) 296 Tylosurus acus Lacepede (Hound Fish) 302 Anisotremus virginicus (Linnaeus) (Pork Fish) 310 Pterophryne histrio (Linnaeus) (Mouse Fish) 316 Teuthis cceruleus (Bloch and Schneider) (Blue Surgeon or Tang) 322 Epinephelus maculosus Cuvier and Valenciennes (Red Hind) . . 332 Bodianus fulvus punctatus (Linnaeus) (Negro Fish) 340 Sparisoma aurofrenatum (Cuv. and Val.) (Gold-bridled Parrot Fish) 350 Cephalacanthus voUtans (Linnaeus) (Flying Gurnard) 356 Holacaiithus tricolor (Bloch) (Rock Beauty) 362 Views Illustrating Mammals 378 Fig. 1. — Skull of Procyon lotor elucus Bangs, seen from above. Fig. 2. — Skull of Procyon lotor elucus Bangs, seen from below. Views Illustrating Mammals 374 Fig. 1. — Skull of Procyon maynardi Bangs, seen from above. Fig. 2. — Skull of Procyon maynardi Bangs, seen from below. Views Illustrating Mammals 380 Fig. 1. — Skull of Procyon pygmwus Merriam, seen from above. Fig. 2. — Skull of Procyon pygmccus Merriam, seen from below. Views Illustrating Sanitary Conditions 388 Fig. 1.— Medical Staff. Fig. 2. — View of Grants Town, Nassau. THE BAHAMA ISLANDS PLATE. FACING PAGE. LXVI. Views Illusti-ating Sanitary Conditions 396 Fig. 1. — Shore Clinic at Current Settlement, Eleuthera. Fig. 2. — Temporary Dispensary at Current Settlement, Eleu- thera. LXVII. Views Illustrating Sanitary Conditions 404 Fig. 1. — View of Infirmary, Nassau. Fig. 2. — View of Hospital, Nassau. LXVIII. Views Illustrating Sanitary Conditions 412 Fig. 1. — View of Lazaretto at Nassau. Fig. 2. — View of Typical Home of Colored People. LXIX. Group of Lepers with Attendant Physician, from Lazaretto at Nassau 420 LXX. Views Illustrating Sanitary Conditions 428 Fig. 1. — Tubercular Leprosy in Advanced Stage. Fig. 2. — Incipient Tubercular Leprosy. LXXI. Views Illustrating Sanitai-y Conditions 434 Fig. 1. — Man at Hopetown, Abaco, in Advanced Stage of Anaesthetic Leprosy, Showing Facial Paralysis and Loss of Fingers and Toes. Fig. 2. — Woman at Hopetown, Abaco, in Advanced Stage of Anaesthetic Leprosy, Showing Loss of Fingers. LXXII. Views Illustrating Sanitary Conditions 344 Fig. 1. — Samson Rooker, Showing Six Digits on Each Hand. Fig. 2. — Dwarf at Spanish Wells. LXXIII. Views Illustrating Sanitary Conditions 450 Fig. 1. — Negroes coming to Vessel for Medical Treatment, Clarence Harbor, Long Island. Fig. 2. — Three Brothers Afflicted with Congenital Blind- ness, Hopetown, Abaco. LXXIV. Views Illustrating Sanitary Conditions 458 Fig. 1. Two Idiots out of Five in a Family of Eight Chil- dren, Hopetown, Abaco. Fig. 2. — Mother of Girls shown in Accompanying Figure. LXXV. Views Illustrating Sanitary Conditions 464 Fig. 1. — Family at Hopetown, Abaco. The young man is a Congenital Idiot. Fig. 2. — Nearer View of Congenital Idiot Showing also Flac- cid Paralysis of Left Arm. LXXVI. Family Tree of Degenerates at Hopetown, Elbow Cay, Abaco, Bahamas 472 LXXVII. Views Illustrating Sanitary Conditions 478 Fig. 1. — Filaria nocturna in human blood (Magnified 490 Diameters). Fig. 2. — Filaria nocturna in human blood (Magnified 490 Diameters). XXVI ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE. FACING PAGE. LXXVIII. Views Illustrating Sanitary Conditions 486 Fig. 1. — Foot affected with Ainhum of Little Toe. Fig. 2. — Left Foot of Samson Rooker, showing Six Toes. LXXIX. Views Illustrating Sanitary Conditions 492 Fig. 1. — Left Hand of Samson Rooker, showing Polydac- tylism. Fig. 2. — Right Hand of Samson Rooker, showing Polydac- tylism. LXXX. Views Illustrating Historical Researches 500 Fig. 1.— Profile of Lucayan Skull. Fig. 2. — Front View of Lucayan Skull. LXXXI. Sir Gilbert T. Carter, Governor, Bahama Islands, 1898-1904 506 LXXXII. Views Illustrating General Conditions 514 Fig. 1. — View Showing Government House and Gardens, Nassau. Fig. 2. — Lane of Poincianas, Government House, Nassau. LXXXIII. Views Illustrating General Conditions 520 Fig. 1. — View of Fort Fincastle, Nassau. Fig. 2. — View of Entrance to a Nassau Estate. LXXXIV. Views Illustrating General Conditions 528 Fig. 1. — View of Mangrove Thicket, New Providence. Fig. 2. — Scene at Mount Vernon, New Providence. LXXXV. Views Illustrating General Conditions 534 Fig. 1. — Thatch Palmetto. New Providence. Fig. 2. — Cocoanut Palm, Nassau. LXXXVI. Views Illustrating General Conditions 542 Fig. 1. — View of Bay Street, Nassau. Fig. 2. — View of Sisal Plantation, New Providence. LXXXVII. Views Illustrating General Conditions 550 Fig. 1. — Sisal Fiber Exposed for Drying. Fig. 2. — Sisal Factory, New Providence. LXXXVIII. View of Silk-Cotton Tree at Nassau 558 LXXXIX. Views Illustrating General Conditions 56G Fig. 1. — View of Limestone Quarry, Nassau. Fig. 2. — Building Construction at Nassau. XC. Views Illustrating General Conditions 574 Fig. 1. — View of Salt Pans at Rum Cay. Fig. 2.— View of Salt Piles at Rum Cay. XCI. View of Colonial Hotel at Nassau 582 XCII. Views Illustrating Genei'al Conditions 590 Fig. 1. — Characteristic Homes of Sponge Fishermen. Fig. 2. — Group of Sponge Fishermen. XCIII. Views Illustrating General Conditions 598 Fig. 1. — View of a Sponge Exchange at Nassau. Fig. 2. — View of a Sponge Yard at Nassau. THE BAHAMA ISLANDS XXVI 1 FIGURE PAGE 1. Diagram Showing Location of Tide Gauge and Bench MarlvS 51 2. Nassau, Bahama Islands. Record made in Flight of July 1, 1903, 9 a. m. to 5 p. m 131 3. Nassau, Bahama Islands. Record made in Flight of July 2, 1903, 3 to 6 p. m 133 4. Nassau, Bahama Islands. Record made on board the Steam Launch Alicia, July 6, 1903, 11 a. m. to 1 p. m 135 5. Nassau, Bahama Islands. Based on Records of June 27 to July 6, 1903. . 137 6. Nassau, Bahama Islands, June 27, July 1, 2, 6, 1903. Average Condition during four ascents 137 7. Diagram of Mosquito with parts named 279 PREFACE The two main o))jects which the Trustee? of the Geographical Society of Baltimore have sought to accomplish 1)}' means of the *Society are, first, to place before the public of Baltimore, at practically cost prices, an annual course of lectures dealing either directly or indirectly with geographical sub- jects; and second, to foster geographical research and, from time to time, publish monographs dealing with some particular piece of geographical in- vestigation, carried on under the auspices of the Society. In pursuance of this latter object, the Bahama Expedition was organized and equipped, and sent out from Baltimore on the first day of June, 1903, to the Bahama Islands. The object of this Expedition was to investigate the origin and natural history of the Islands and also to conduct studies along lines intimately associated with the well-being of the inhal)itants. In the organization of the Expedition provision was made and suitable men selected to carry on investigations in Geology, Paleontology, Tides, Terrestrial Magnetism, Climate, Exploration of the Upper Atmosphere, Soils and Agricultural Conditions, Vegetation, Mosquitoes, Fishes, Batrachians and Eeptiles, Mammals, Birds, Sanitary Conditions, Commercial Geography, and a History of the people who have inhabited the Islands. The names of those who carried forward these investigations are given in another part of this volume. For many months previous to the day of departure the Director of the Expedition was busily engaged in organizing and equipping the various depart- ments, in order that each might work as far as possible independentlj^ of all the others. For the work in geology, barometers, levels, hammers, and' the necessary collecting outfit were supplied. For the work on tides and terrestrial magnetism the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey kindly loaned to the Expedi- tion a tide-gauge and instruments for a magnetic survey. For the work on climate, the I\ S. Weather Bureau cooperated and supplied the Expedition with kites, barometers, thermographs, and other instruments for making automatic records of meteorologic conditions. For the work on soils the Bureau of Soils, U. S. Department of Agriculture, kindly loaned one of their field equipments, containing a complete field laboratory for the chemical examination XXX PREFACE of soils. For the work in botany, all the necessary equipment for collecting and preserving plants was provided. For the work on mosquitoes, collecting jars, preserving fluids, and other necessary apparatus were supplied. For the work on fishes, tangle-bars and oyster-dredges were furnished by the Expedi- tion ; a hand-windlass for deep-sea dredging was kindly loaned by the University of Iowa; nets and deep-sea dredges were furnished to the Expedition by the U. S. Fish Commission, and a glass-bottom boat was contributed by Mr. Bernard N". Baker, of Baltimore. For the work on land zoology, guns, ammuni- tion, collecting bags, chests for skins, preserving fluids, etc., were supplied. For the work on sanitary conditions, the Expedition furnished a supply of drugs and instruments which was as complete as possible. The care of the members of the party was the first consideration, and no expense was spared in order to be prepared for any emergency which might arise. In addition to the above a naphtha laimch, cameras, and a library containing books relating to the Bahama Islands were supplied for the use of all the party. This equipment, together with provisions for a two months' cruise were placed on board the Van A^nme, a one hundred ton schooner Avhich had been chartered for the Expedition. The cabin of this ship was set aside for an office and reading room, and the various staterooms opening from it were used as laboratories and a dark room. The men were quartered in the hold, which had been renovated and freshly painted. As a number of the men who took part in the Expedition were on leave of absence from various government bureaus for the months of June and July only, the time at the disposal of the Expedition was limited. Every effort was made to so arrange* matters that work could go forward with the greatest possible dispatch. Unfortunately, however, storms, head winds, and calm weather prolonged the outward voyage and the vessel did not arrive at Xassau, its first stopping place, until the 17th of June. It was necessary to leave before the end of July in order to reach Baltimore at the time appointed. This left about five weeks in which to prosecute the work. It was fully intended to explore some of the more southerly islands of the Bahama group, but the plan was finally abandoned on account of the loss of time occasioned by unfavorable sailing conditions. However, the Expedition visited Abaco, Xew Providence, Andros, Green Cay, and the Eleuthera group of islands, Cat Island, Long Island, Eum Cay and Watlings Island. Although the work of the various staffs was somewhat diversified, there was little difficulty experienced in adjusting the needs of each. The historian. THE BAHAMA ISLANDS XXXI Mr. Wright, was left at Nassau where he made a study of original records and returned to Baltimore independently of the Expedition late in September. Dr. Fassig and Mr. Eouth also spent considerable time at Nassau, but were with the Expedition again at Watlings Island and Long Island. The other members of the scientific staff accompanied the vessel throughout the cruise. Most of the work was done on shore, so that as soon as the vessel came to anchor at any particular station, the various corps were landed, conducted their work independently, and returned to the ship to eat and sleep. Fre- quently, while work was being conducted on land, Mr. Bean and his corps would either take the naphtha launch and glass-bottom boat on a collecting tour or else the large vessel would be placed at their disposal for dredging. While the Expedition was at Nassau, a laboratory was established in a private house, so that chemical analyses of the various soil types could be made. The botanists also secured another room where they could conduct certain branches of work which the motion of the vessel made impracticable on shipboard. It will be readily understood that much of the work done in the field by the Expedition was only preliminary to studies conducted later in laborato- ries. The material which is published in this volume is the result of a large amount of work subsequent to the return of the Expedition to Baltimore. As a rule, the Directors of the various staffs are the authors of the chapters in this book, but Dr. L. 0. Howard, who was not present on the Expedition, has kindly written the introduction to the chapter on mosquitoes, while Mr. Leonhard Stejneger and Mr. Gerrit S. Miller have cooperated in the work of land zoology and written respectively the chapters on reptiles and mammals. Dr. William H. Dall has studied and discussed the collection of fossils. Mr. L. P. Shidy has reduced the tide-gauge observations and written the chapter on tides; and oflficials connected with the Division of Terrestrial Magnetism of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey have kindly reduced the magnetic observations taken by Dr. 0. L. Fassig and compiled^ the tables which are pub- lished in the chapter pertaining to the magnetic survey. It would have been impossible for the Director of the Expedition to have accomplished even the smallest results had it not been for the earnest and enthusiastic cooperation of his colleagues, and acknowledgment is here heartily oiven to these srentlemen for their incessant work while in the Bahamas. The a O Director also wishes to take this opportunity to express his appreciation to the Trustees of the Society and of the Johns Hopkins University for their generous response to his needs in organizing and equipping the Expedition; to the XXXll PREFACE U. S. Department of Agriculture, IT. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, U. S. Weather Bureau, and the U. S. Fish Commission for the loan of necessary apparatus; to the Government of the Bahama Islands for a generous appro- priation to meet part of the expenses incurred in conducting the soil survey; to His Excellency, Sir Gilbert T. Carter, former Governor of the Bahama Islands, for his personal support and interest in the work of the Expedition; to Mr. C. Tyldesley Sands of Nassau and Messrs. Penniman and Brown of Baltimore for generous and personal services in connection with the soil survey ; to Mr. H. M, Flagler for many courtesies; to Mr. Bernard N". Baker, for the gift of the glass-bottom boat; to the Kotre Dame of Maryland; and to the many friends of the Society who personally gave financial aid to the Expedi- tion and who later, in a similar manner, encouraged the publication of this volume. The IT. S. Hydrographic office kindly furnished transfers from their own stones for the base of the bathymetric map shown in Plate X. The bases for the various soil maps (Plates XXVIII-XXXII) have been reen- graved from Admiralty charts. The hurricane charts (Plates XVIII-XXIY) have been revised and brought down to date from similar charts previously published by the IT. S. Weather Bureau. Mr. A. H. Baldwin, the well-known artist, accompanied the Expedition, and made the original colored sketclies from which the lithographs of fishes (Plates LII-LXI) have been reproduced. The originals for the figures of mosquitoes (Plates XLYIII-LI) were also drawn by Mr. Baldwin and kindly loaned to the Editor by Dr. L. 0. Howard. Mr. J. B. Smith, State Entomologist of New Jersey, furnished the electrotype for Figure 5, and the Maryland Weather Service, the originals for Plate XIV, Fig. 1, and Plate XVI. Mr. George X. Saegmuller, of Washington, D. C, kindly furnished the original for the figure of the tide-gauge (Plate XIV, Fig. 2). The figures of fossils (Plates XI-XIII) are the work of Miss Frances Wieser, of Washington, and Plates LXXVII, LXXVIII and LXXIX are the work of Mr. Hermann Becker, of Baltimore. Messrs. Forrest Shreeve and iVlbert Sommerwerck. of Baltimore, have aided in the clerical work of this volume. PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE. THE BAHAIVA ISLANDS. PLATE PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS BY GEORGE BURBANK SHATTUCK, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Physiographic Geology in the Johns Ilophins University, AND BENJAMIN LeROY MILLER, Ph. D., Associate in Geology in Bryn Mawr College. INTRODUCTION. Along the northeastern margin of the West Indies, extending from sonthern Florida to eastern Haiti, is a group of three thousand or more low islands, keys, rocks and banks, to which the name Bahama Islands has been given. Most of these islands are small ; many of them are nothing more than rocks or sand-bores, but they are so scattered that the archipelago as a whole, including the submerged banks in the extreme south, extends from 'i'i° 30' to 19° 50', north latitude and from 68° 45' to 80° 35', west longitude. In other words, the Bahama Islands occupy a • region nearly as extensive as Great Britain, and if superimposed on the surface of the United States they would extend from New York southward to Atlanta, and in their widest part fi'om Cape Hatteras, -w'estward to New Bern, in the heart of the Alleghany moun- tains, in Avestern Virginia. As the archipelago is separated into a northern and southern half by the Tropic of Cancer, which crosses it almost exactly in the middle, the climate is practically tropical throughout. • The eastern margin of the Islands is washed by breakers wliieh roll in unchecked from the broad sui-faee of the Atlantic Ocean, while the western edge is swept by the Gulf Stream as it flows northward through the Straits of Florida. The Islands also lie in the region of the West Indian hurricanes and have been repeatedly swept by terrific cyclones which have proved important geologic agents both of deposition and erosion. When considered from a geological point of view, the Bahamas afford an interesting studv, in that they are composed almost entirely of debris derived 4 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY from corals and other calcareous organisms and rest on a shallow, submerged, platform, which is separated by deep submarine troughs from the neighboring land-masses of North America and the West Indies. PREVIOUS INVESTIGATION. Although there has been considerable written about the Bahamas in books of travel and in popular magazines, this group has received less careful geologic- al stud_y than almost any other portion of the West Indies. For our knowledge regarding the form of the submarine bottom on which the Bahamas rest, and its relation to North America and the West Indian regions, we are chiefly indebted to the excellent charts published by tlie British Admiralty, the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the IT. S. Hydrographic Office. These charts, by indicating a large number of soundings, bring out very clearly the figure and character of the platform from which the Bahama Islands rise. Capt. R. J. Nelson, E. E., was the first to adequately describe these Islands and to bring their true nature to the attention of geologists.' He regarded them as composed of calcareous sand which had been thrown up by the waves to form beaches, and later picked up by the winds and piled into dunes. He saw no evidence of either uplift or subsidence during recent time, and concluded that the Islands had remained stationary in their position during the present epoch. In this connection he says : " Whatever may be the real foundation of the Bahamas, whether, like the West Indian Islands generally, they are indebted to igneous agency for their existence as elevated masses, or otherwise, there is no evidence of such elevation having taken place either in the Bahamas or Bermuda. On the contrary, the total absence of coral-reefs in mass, or even of detached coral blocks, above the tide-line leads us to the supposition that no upheaval has taken place during the present epoch. . . . The fact of detached blocks of coral being found in the rock at considerable distance from the sea- coast at the tide-level, proves that no subsidence has taken place during the present epoch. Conch-shells also, either dispersed or in beds, are found by the well-diggers in the solid rock at about the sea-level, and thus bear evidence to the same fact." ° It was from this paper of Capt. Nelson that Darwin and Dana drew their facts when later they described the Bahamas in their discus- sions on the origin of coral islands. ' On the Geology of the Bahamas. Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, 1853, vol. ix, pp. 200-214. ■hoc. cit., pp. 212-213. THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 5 In about the year 1890 Dr. John I. Northrop spent six months in the Bahama Islands, during which time he visited New Providence and Andros. On his return to the United States he published an account of his observations/ This paper is especially interesting from the fact that he believes that the Bahamas are rising. " I think the facts I have given justify my conclusion in regard to the recent elevation of Andros and New Providence. It is probable that the elevation extended over the rest of the Bahamas, as caves exist on the other islands. What the Bahamas are doing to-day, of course, we cannot tell; but until we have proof to the contrary, we may assume that they are rising." * No other work of importance appeared until Prof. Alexander Agassiz published his researches on the Bahamas.^ The rcconnoissance which Agassiz here describes was undertaken during the winter and early spring of 1893. He had at his disposal the steamship Wild Duel-, and cruised throughout the entire archipelago. The descriptions of the Bahamas which he gives in the Bulletin are very complete and are the best which have ever been published. As a result of his researches he concluded that the Bahamas had at one time stood higher and were more extensive than at present; that they had subsequently subsided for at least 300 feet; and that during this period their areal extent had been further diminished by erosion. In this connection he says: "' After the formation of the islands came an extensive gradual subsidence, which can be estimated at about three hundred feet, and during this subsidence the sea has little by little worn away the aeolian hills, leaving only here and there narrow strips of land in the shape of the present islands. . . . Subsidence explains satisfactorily the present configuration of the Bahamas, but teaches us nothing in regard to the substratum upon which the Bahamas were built. In- deed, the present reefs form but an insignificant part of the topography of the islands, and they have taken only a secondary part in filling here and there a bight or a cove Avith more modern reef rock, thrown up against the shores so as to form coral reef beaches such as we find in the Florida Eeef." ° Agassiz evidently did not observe any of the raised marine deposits which are discussed later in this chapter, for he says : " I did not meet anywhere with deposits ^ Notes on the Geology of the Bahamas, Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 1890, vol. x, Oct. 13, pp. 4-23. * Loc. cit., p. 22. ^ Observations in the West Indies, Am. Jour. Sci., 1893, vol. xiv, pp. 358-362. A Reconnoissance of the Bahamas, etc., Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 1894, vol. xxvi, No. 1, pp. 1-108. "Loc. cit., p. 7. G rilYSIOGRAPIIY AND GEOLOGY either of corals or of inoUusks, the position of which coukl not he satisfactorily accounted for as resulting from the action of winds and waves, or hurricanes." ' One of the results of these various researches was to establish the fact that the Bahama Islands stood on a shallow, irregular, platform which rose out of great depths, not only from the Atlantic on the east, but also from the bottom of the West Indian region on the west. In order to account for the irregulari- ties in the margin of this platform. Dr. J. W. Spencer published two papers ^ in which he argued that the Bahama Islands, together with the rest of the Caribbean-Gulf regions had been formerly much elevated and during this period of elevation had undergone considerable erosion so that its surface became deeply dissected with river-valleys and canyons. Later, when the region sank to its present position, these valleys were submerged and gave rise to the various passages between the Islands as well as to the embayraents which make the outline of the Bahama platform so irregular. During the month of April, 1902, the senior author of this chapter made a geological rcconnoissance of a portion of the Bahama Islands, and later, during June and July of 1903, while a Director of the Bahama Expedition sent out by the Geographical Society of Baltimore, he, in connection with Dr. Miller, examined further into the structure of the Islands. The conclusions which seeuied to be justified by these studies were pul)Iished just after the return of the Expedition." They were as follows : " The present survey has been able to determine that the material com- posing the Bahama Islands is not entirely made up of wind-blown coral and lime sand, but the lower portions of many of the islands, extending up to ten or fifteen or twenty-five feet above the present level of mean tide, has been de- posited by the ocean and contains marine organisms in large numbers. Above this lies the deposit of Avind-blown material which has up to this time been regarded as the sole type of deposit visible throughout the archipelago. " In regard to the question of elevation or subsidence, the survey has deter- mined that both processes have taken place. The Islands were doubtless much higher at one time than to-day, and it is equally certain that they were formerly more depressed beneath the Atlantic Ocean than they are now. It is impossible to say whether they are being elevated or submerged at the present time, as the ' Loc. cit. * Reconstruction of the Antillean Continent. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 189.5, vol. 6, pp. 103-140, and Resemblance between the Declivities of High Plateaus to Those of Submarine Antillean Valleys, Trans. Can. Inst., 1898, vol. v, pp. 359-368. " Science, N. S.. 1903. vol. xviii, p. 428. THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 7 process is extremely slow at best, and can only be detected by careful measure- ment extending over long periods of time/^ From this resume it will be seen that four views have been held at various times by those who have studied the geology of the Bahamas. JSTelson con- cluded that the Islands were stationary: Northrop, that they were probably rising; Agassiz, that they had been depressed; and lastly, Shattuck and Miller, that the Islands had undergone a former elevation; followed by a more recent depression, which in turn had given place to a still later elevation; but as to whether the Islands are now stationary or experiencing a change in level no opinion was expressed. PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES. The physiographic features of the Bahama Islands fall into two groups, a submarine and a subserial. Those belonging to the first division are largely hidden from direct observation, beneath the surface of the ocean, and have been only roughly ascertained by means of the sounding-line. Those of the second division are everywhere open to observation and constitute the topographic fea- tures of the Islands. SuBMARiXE Division. The Bahama Islands rest on a submerged platform which rises on all side.s abruptly from the surrounding depths of the ocean. This platform is the most significant ph3^siographic feature of the Bahania Islands, and will be considered first in relation to surrounding regions; second, in regard to its own contour and slope; and third, in regard to the character of its surface. Relation with surrounding regions. — Between the great land-masses of North and South America there is a region of land and water including southern Mexico, Central America, the islands of the West Indies, the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, which has long been a puzzle to geographers and geolo- gists. As a result of a vast amount of tedious sounding it has finally been ascertained that the American Mediterranean, as this region is appropriately called, is divisible into three great basins. In the northwestern portion is a huge depression which is filled by the Gulf of Mexico; in the southeast a still greater one is occupied by the Caribbean sea ; while between them a third, deeper than either of the others, holds the waters which lie between Yucatan and Cuba. These three basins not only are separated from each other by broad banks Avhich rise like partitions between them, but they are also cut off from 8 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY free communication with the ocean beyond, by another bank which connects the coast of South America with Florida. Although these banks are for the most part submerged, they are none the less real; for, not only do they prevent the cold water at the bottom of the Atlantic from getting over into the basins of the Caribbean-Gulf region, but they also exclude free circulation of the waters within the region itself. The islands of the West Indies are nothing more than the superficial por- tions of these banks or ridges which happen at the present epoch to rise above the surface of the water. These dry land summits are, in terms of geology, transitory and uncertain. They have not always been as they are to-day, nor will they remain so in the future; but they change their shapes and positions in response to movements of the earth's crust of which they form a part. The Bahama Islands which are to be considered as the summits of a portion of the eastern ridge connecting South America with Florida are no exception. Contour and slope. — The flat-topped ridge or platform from which the Bahama Islands rise extends from southern Florida to eastern Haiti. By an examination of the map which accompanies this chapter" (Plate X) it will be seen that this platform rises rapidly from the deeper regions which surround it on all sides. The steepest ascent is along the eastern face of the platform, where it abruptly rises from the bottom of the Atlantic to the surface of the ocean — a vertical distance of 2500 fathoms — in a little less than 25 miles. On the south, west and north, the ascent, although rapid, is not so pronounced as towards the Atlantic for the reason that the waters east of Florida, Cuba, and Haiti are not as deep. On all sides, however, the platform is so well marked that it stands out as a great submerged tableland from the surrounding ocean- bottom. The northwestern half of the Bahama platform varies greatly from the southeastern. Not only is it shallower, lying for the most part, as in the Great and Little Bahama Banks, only a few feet or fathoms beneath the surface of the ocean, but also it is less broken than the latter, and carries the largest islands. The islands of the southeastern half are arranged in small groups and rise rapidly on all sides from a lower portion of the platform. They are also separated from each other by wide passages. ^° The base of this map was engraved from transfers kindly furnished by the Hydrographic Office. To this the bathymetric contours and colors have been added. The general appearance of this map is similar to the one published by Professor Agassiz in his " Reconnoissance of the Bahamas," but it differs from it in that the area included is not the same, more contours and details have been intro- duced, and a different system of colors employed. GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE II Fig. 1. — VIEW of sail rocks showing marine erosion Fig. 2. — view of highway on summit of blue hills, new providence PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC VIEWS THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 9 The irregular outline of the Bahama plateau is one of its most significant characteristics. In the northeast portion this is particularly well marked on account of the separation of the Little and Great Bahama Banks by Providence Channel and also by the embayments known as " Tongue-of-the-Ocean " and " Exuma Sound." These embayments dissect the Great Bahama Bank so that it resembles a letter S and admits the deep waters of the ocean into the very heart of the plateau. The southeastern half of the platform does not appear so irregular in outline; but this is due to the fact that passages such as Crooked Island, Caicos, Turks, and Silver Bank have taken the place of embayments; or, in other words, that erosion has destroyed whatever con- necting banks formerly existed and now allows the ocean to pass unobstructed between the individual island groups. There is another feature which marks the northwestern portion of the plateau strongly from the southeastern, and that is the greater pre- ponderance of shallow water in the former and of deep water in the latter. Throughout the northwestern. Little and Great Bahama Banks, with the islands which they carry on their surfaces, stand out in marked contrast to the more insignificant banks of the southeastern half, which form groups independent of one another. This contrast between the two divisions of the Bahama platform conveys the impression that the surface as a whole slopes toward the southeast. This impression is increased from the fact that the Silver and Navidad Banks, situated in the extreme south, are devoid of islands. But one should not too quickly conclude from this that the platform is actually depressed toward the southeast. On the contrary the facts would seem to indicate that the difference in depths of water are due not so much to deformation as to differential erosion and that the southeastern half has suifered relatively more than the northwestern. Surface. — The surface of the Bahama platform is divisible into a deep- water and a shallow-water facies. The former, as has just been said, is more ex- tensively developed throughout the southeastern half of the region, while the latter dominates the northwestern. Concerning the physical features of the surface, the methods employed in the exploration of the deep-water facies have not been sufficiently delicate to reveal more than salient features. Judging from the data procuied from soundings, its surface appears to be flat and practi- cally featureless except where it rises abruptly to form banks and pass over into the shallow-water facies. More is known regarding the shallow- water facies, for it lies so near the surface of the ocean that it can be distinctlv 10 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY seen through the clear water which covers it. Aside from the islands, keys, and rocks, which will be discussed later, three features stand out prominently. They are coral reefs, sand bores, and marine ocean-holes. Everywhere over the surface of these shallow banks coral heads and reefs are to be found. xVlong the more exposed eastern face, the coral polyp flourishes and builds extensive barrier reefs making that shore practically inaccessible to shipping, while over the surface of the more sheltered banks individual coral heads and small reefs are constantly encountered. These cause the bottoms to shallow suddenly and are consequently much dreaded by sailors. Dangerous reefs are frequently scattered so thickly over the surface of the banks that it has proved impracticable to chart them. The waters where they occur are avoided by vessels of large draft, and navigation is never attempted save in broad daylight and with a sailor at the bow to notify the helmsman of approaching reefs. Sand bars or '' sand bores " as they are usually called occur in greatest abundance over the surface of the bank south of the Tongue-of-the-Ocean. In this region they are so numerous as to make it dangerous for even light shipping during times of ebb tide. These sand bores are very low bars of white, coral sand which collect on the Ijanks and frequently rise a few feet above the surface of the ocean. During ebb tide they are laid bare in great numbers, but during high water most of them disappear. They are not fixed in one position, but shift about with the ever-changing currents. Submarine ocean-holes, or " blue holes " as they are frequently called, are, as the name indicates, deep holes which open suddenly downwards from the surface of the banks. In the Bahamas, the color of shallow water is green, and of deep water, blue ; so that depth is indicated by color. The presence of an ocean-hole is therefore shown by an isolated area of blue water in the midst of a sea of green; hence the term "blue hole.^^ These ocean-holes vary in diameter from a few feet to a quarter of a mile or more. Their sides beneath the opening frequently flare out like a bottle, and are iisually covered with healthy branches of growing coral and many different varieties of marine plants, showing that there is a constant circulation of water. N'umerous attempts have been made to ascertain the depth of these holes, but only in a few cases have lines succeeded in reaching the liottom. Agassiz found that some of the holes which he fathomed were at least 300 feet deep. It has been frequently observed that the water boils or rushes through these ocean-holes in harmony with the ebb and flow of the tide, proving that they are connected with deep THE BAHAMA ISLAXDS 11 water beyond. Although these ocean-holes are occasionally met with they cannot be considered of common occurrence. Agassiz states that the principal ones are as follows : " One 5 to 6 miles from Hawks Bill Eock; three, of 18, 34 and 13 fathoms, a little north of Blue Hole Point. These are about 5 miles apart on a northerly line. There are two more, of IT and 38 fathoms, in the extension of a line of Blossom Channel leading from Tongue-of-the-Ocean upon the banlc. There is also a 15 fathom hole at High Point on Andros, and a 20 fathom hole in the middle bight between Gibson Key and Big Wood Key. The senior author of this paper had a novel experience at this particular ocean-hole during his first cruise in the Bahamas. After a long search the locality was discovered one evening at sundown, and tlie ship brought to anchor for the night close by. The boat, as she lay at rest, was about an eighth of a mile from the ocean-hole. The surface of the water above the hole was covered with a circular mass of foam about 15 feet in diameter, rotating slowly in a direc- tion contrary to the hands of a watcli. All hands on board could plainly see from the distance at which the l)oat stood that the surface of the water al)ove the hole sagged and took on a saucer-like depression. A boat was cpiickly lowered and rowed cautiously toward the ocean-hole. As soon as it arrived in the saucer-like depression it was caught in the whirlpool and moved slowly round and round with the motion of the water. Looking down, the opening into the cavern beneath could be distinctly seen and it was evident, as the tide was flowing, that this ocean-hole communicated with other caverns at a distance, possibly on the island of Andros, and that the water was being sucked down through the opening to find its way into unknown parts. The walls of this ocean-hole were lined with living coral and marine plants. An attempt was made at sounding Init the lead did not succeed in reaching bottom. Distribution of Islands. — These various islands and keys are distributed unequally throughout the archipelago. By far the greater number are confined to the northwestern half and lie for the most part aroimd the periphery of the banks, where they descend suddenly to deep water. In the southwestern portion of the Bahamas the islands are less numerous and are assembled in clusters, which rest on isolated banks, while in the extreme south, keys and rocks give place to submerged banks. ''' Loc. cit., p. 42. 12 PHYSIOGRAPHY AXD GEOLOGY Character of Surface. — The topography of these land fragments consists of features which rise in relief and others which sink as depressions beneath the general surface. The features of relief are dunes of coral sand and ridges of hard rock. The depressions consist of lakes, ponds or marshes, ocean-holes, banana-holes, and a general rough surface. Dunes occur with great frequency along the sea-shores, where the winds have an opportunity to blow the calcareous sand up into heaps dazzling in tlie sunlight. These bear the characteristic vegetation and consolidate rapidly into soft rock, so that the tendency is to grow in height rather than to migrate inland. These dunes are distributed generally throughout the archipelago, but perhaps they are well developed as anywhere along the eastern side of Eleuthera fronting the ocean. There appears to be no very well defined line of separation between these half consolidated dunes, and the ridges of hard rock. Both have the same origin, as well as a similar topography, and one passes into the other with insensible gradations. The oldest dunes are hard rock, while the youngest are loose sand, and there is every intermediate stage. These ridges cross the islands in ranks like the dunes, and where an island has suffered severely from erosion, are frequently the only remaining features to mark the once more con- tinuous land surface. The highest of these ridges are met with in Cat Island, where they rise to about 400 feet, but this is uncommon. They are usually low, I'olling liills, scarcely high enough to break the monotony of the landscape. Sub.i:rial Divisiok. Professor Agassiz has given such minute and careful descriptions of the various islands of the Bahama archipelago,'" that it is unnecessary to go over the same ground here. Those desiring detailed descriptions are referred to the monograph mentioned above. Tn this paper only the salient features which apply to the group as a whole will be considered. Classification. — The Bahama Islands consist of some three thousand or more islands, keys, and rocks, which Agassiz has classified in the following manner : " First, sunken banks like the Navidad, Silver and Mouchoir Banks; second, islands occupying the whole or nearly the whole summit of the banks from which they rise, as Watlings, Eum Cay, Concepcion, Plana Cays, Inagua, and the atoll of Hogsty; third, banks having a resemblance to atolls, like Crooked '°Loc. cit. " Loc. cit., p. 11. THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 13 Island and Caicos Banks, which are fringed with low islands, so as to form a crescent with a shallow open lagoon in the interior; fourth. Salt Cay Bank, which is intermediate between first and third classes; fifth, composite banks like the Little and Great Bahama Banks which carry characteristics causing them to resemble all of the others. On the larger islands, lakes, ponds and marshes are frequently met with. Many of these are shallow, while others are quite deep and are connected more or less directly with the ocean. They are usually und rained, contain brackish water, and their shores are lined with mangroves and other characteristic salt- loving plants. Examples of these are Lake Killarney and Harold l^ond (Plate V, Fig. 1) on New Providence. The shores of these lakes advance and recede with the filling or desiccating of the body of water within. One of the most beautiful brackish lakes in the Bahamas is located in the interior of AVatlings Island (Plate V, Fig. 2, and Plate XXXII). It is known as Great Lake, contains brackish water, and is reported to be con- nected with the sea beyond. On the day that the Expedition visited this lake, foam from the water had been blown up on the beach into drifts which quivered in the breeze like piles of eider-down. An additional interest is attached to this lake as it is believed to be the one seen by Columbus on the morning of the day when he first touched foot in America. In addition to these lakes there are deep, well-like depressions filled with salt watei- and connected with the ocean by subterranean passages. They ebb and flow with the tide, support marine life, and in all essential features resemble the submarine ocean-holes, except that they occur on land, usually removed some distance from the sea. One of the most perfect of these occurs at Tarpum Bay, just behind the settlement and at a distance of about a quarter of a mile from the sea-shore (Plate IX, Fig. 1). This terrestrial ocean-hole is circular in form and is said to be 100 feet deep. It contains salt water, and one standing on the rim can distinctly see marine fishes swimming about in the water below. The surface of this water changes with the tide and there is no doubt that a subterranean channel connects this hole with the ocean outside. There are all gradations between these terrestrial ocean-holes and a smaller type of well-like openings known as " banana-holes." These banana- holes are cylindrical depressions with perpendicular sides and attain at times a depth of 25 feet or more. Their bottoms are usually lined with soil or mud, but at other times contain brackish or salt water which ebbs and 14 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY' flows with the tide. Others have no such connection and remain dry except wlien filled with rain-water. These holes range downward in size until they merge with the general rough surface of the country. The smaller ones having a depth of 5 or 10 feet usually contain rich soil and are used to grow bananas; hence the name. Throughout the Bahamas the surface rock is extremely rough and is carved into innumerable cavities and holes. When these openings are about the size of a flower pot they are known as "' pot-holes '" ; although they are due to solution and not to mechanical erosion. These pot-holes are filled with rich soil and in them the pineapple plant is cultivated. GEOLOGICAL FEATURES. The Bahama Islands are built out of sediments derived from the destruc- tion of coral and other calcareous organisms. Nothing is known regarding the geology of the platform on which these Islands rest, but, if it is similar to other ridges of the West Indies, its geology is complex and the-veneer of white calcareous sand simply covers it like a shroud. These sedimentary rocks, out of which the Islands are built, have been deposited by three agencies, air, water, and organisms. Each one of these types will now be considered. ^EoLiAx Deposits. These deposits include the dunes and rock-ridges described in a previous section. These dunes are composed of half solidified calcareous sand blown up from the sea-shore, while the ridges of hard rock are ancient dunes cemented to solid limestone. They both contain fossil land-shells and have a cross- bedded structure. This cross-bedding may be seen wherever the rock has been excavated. The fresh surfaces thus exposed weather quickly, but as the various layers do not decay at the same rate, the cross-bedded structure is brought out in a striking manner. Such exposures may be seen in the various quarries of Nassau and in the approach to the bridge leading to Government House (Plate IT). This cross-bedding can also be seen from the sides of the road where the highway leading to the south passes over the summit of Blue Ridge (Plate II, Fig. 2). Fossil land-shells are frequently discovered in these a?olian deposits. A representative collection was secured and submitted to Dr. Dall who has dis- cussed it in the succeeding chapter. The manner in which these shells are entombed is most interesting. The surface of the dunes supports a scant GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE III Fig. 1. — VIEW siiowixo surface of wave eroded limestone, sail rocks Fig. 2. — view of wave eroded limestone, showing casts of roots and other vegetable remains, sail rocks PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC VIEWS THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 15 vegetation which has become adapted to this semi-arid environment. The leaves of these shrubs support large numbers of land-shells, which feed on them and at death become detached and falling to the ground accumulate about the base of the plants. Drifting sand quickly covers them over and they become true fossils. In digging around the roots of these plants, one can uncover a large number of these shells. As the dune thickens and grows in height, these organisms become buried deeper and deeper and, when the sand solidifies to hard rock, they become cemented into one mass with the surrounding particles. Vegetable remains and especially casts of roots occur abundantly in tlie agolian deposits. These are particularly noticeable where the waves have etched out the softer parts of the matrix and have left the more consolidated casts to stand out in relief, giving to the surface a rough and seoriaceous appearance (Plate III, Fig. 2). Aqueous Deposits. The deposits formed by the agency of water have either been laid do\\'n at the bottom of the small ponds described above or by the waves and currents of the ocean. The deposits made at the bottom of the small lakes are of little extent. They, however, are of considerable importance in that they carry the remains of the organisms which inhabit the various brackish water lakes. Great Ijake in the interior of Watlings carries large numbers of shells; also tlic salt pans on Eum Cay (Plate XC, Fig. 1). The deposits which line the bottoms of these salt pans contain large numbers of fossil shells, which belong to a fauna derived from the ocean outside but adapted to living in their peculiar environment. The fossils collected at Eum Cay were submitted to Dr. Dall Avho has discussed them in another chapter. In many places it was found that these solian deposits rested on lower beds of marine origin, which were frequently very fossiliferous. Localities where these marine beds were observed finally became so numerous and were so widely distributed that the conviction became irresistible that the substratum of the Bahamas, throughout at least the northwestern portion of the archipelago, was marine. At certain places, as for instance, on Eum Cay, these marine deposits extend as high as 15 or 20 feet above sea level. The aeolian deposits are therefore to be considered as a superficial blanket covering these basal marine sediments. A list of localities where these marine deposits were found, together with the fossils from each, is given by Dr. Dall in the next chapter. A quarter of a mile west of Clarence Harbor the contact between the 16 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY seolian and marine rocks is shown more distinctly than in any of the other localities visited hy the Expedition. Along a canal which has been cut to admit water in a salt pan, some excellent sections are shown. The lower part of the section contains great quantities of marine fossils, while above, land forms are equally abundant. These two deposits are not separated by any pronounced break, but if the section could be traced for any distance it is probable that an unconformity would appear. The surface of the banks is everywhere covered with a snow-white mantle of calcareous sand and mud derived chiefly from the erosion of coral reefs. In the region south of Tongue-of-the-Ocean these sediments are heaped into sand bores by the currents. In the bights and along the A\'estern shore of Andros, as well as along the western shore of Abaco, on the l)ottom of Wide Opening and other places, there is a peculiar deposit of finely divided calcareous mud known as '*' white marl." This has the consistency of chalk and may, in fact, be considered to be a modern chalk deposit. The following is an analysis of this white marl from Middle Bight, Andros, which the Bureau of Soils, U. S. Department of Agriculture, has been kind enough to furnish : Potash (K.O) 0.306 Soda (Na,0) 2.12 Lime (CaO) 47.50 Magnesia (MgO) 2.85 Iron and Alumnia (Fe & Al) trace Nitrogen (N) 0.054 Phosphorus pentoxide (PoOJ 0.123 Sulphur trioxide ( SO3) 0.37 Chlorine (CI) 2.97 Silica (SiO,) 3.22 Carbon dioxide (CO,) 40.48 99.993 Organic Deposits. Throughout the Bahama Islands coral polyps are actively engaged in building up fringing reefs against the shore, while coral heads in both isolated and small clusters are scattered promiscuously over the more sheltered l)anks. As these were discussed in a previous section, they will not be taken up further in this place. There is, however, on the little island of Green Cay, situated on the southeast margin of Tongue-of-the-Ocean, a dead reef which lies per- manently above the level of low tide. This reef, which extends along the shore for about a quarter of a mile, is composed of a number of different species of corals and extends in toward the center of the Island, where it becomes THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 17 covered by sand dunes. (Plate VIII.) It is the only instance of the kind which was discovered in the Bahamas, but it is evident that when this reef was formed it occupied a lower level than at present, and that it has been raised to its present position since its formation. Structure and Age. Xowhere were these sedimentary beds observed to lie otherwise than in a horizontal position. Cross-bedding due to wave and atmospheric action was, of course, prevalent, but this did not interfere with the general horizontal attitude of the deposits. Although the marine beds have been elevated since their deposition, they now occupy a position a few feet above and parallel to the one in which they were laid down. From the fossil contents of both the ffiolian and aqueous beds, Dr. Dall has determined that the deposits are Eecent. Erosion. Signs of erosion are visible on every side throughout the Bahama Islands. In fact, it is evident that processes of destruction are much more important here than those of construction. The upper surface of the limestone rock out of which the Bahamas are built shows everywhere signs of solution. The solving agents are both carbon dioxide brought down by the rain from the atmosphere, or humic acids contained in the soil. Wherever these reagents attack the rock a differential erosion tak«s place, the softer parts are dissolved and carried away, leaving irregular cavities which in time fill with soil and form the pot-holes mentioned above. In other places where the solution has not advanced so far, a rubbly or rough surface is the result. These results, however, are insignificant when compared to the more important work of underground waters which during some period in the past, when the region stood higher than to-day, dissolved the subterranean rocks of the Islands and left them in a cavernous and honey-combed condition. The ocean-holes, banana-holes, and many of the brackish pools mentioned above are due to this subterranean solution. As there are no true rivers in the Bahama Islands the mechanical erosion is practically confined to the work of waves. The Islands situated as they are, well out in the Atlantic are subjected to a perpetual attack from the sea. A glance at the map (Plate X) will suffice to convince one that the whole archipelago has suffered severely from the effects of wave erosion. The Islands are being slowly worn away and broken up into keys and rocks and these in 2 18 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY turn are being planed down to submarine banks. (Plate II, Fig. 1, and Plate III.) In fact, the entire archipelago as it exists to-day is only a fraction of what it must have been in times gone by. It must be remembered that the Bahama Islands are honey-combed with caverns and that these cavities give the waves an excellent chance to attack and tear the rock asunder. Evidences of this are seen on every hand. From the shore where precipitous bluffs come down to meet the waves, the former frequently contain huge caverns which have been carved out by the waves as they have enlarged smaller openings which originally occurred in the rocks. These are of very common occurrence along the sea-shore but " The Caves " (Plate IX, Fig. 2), seven miles west of ISTassau, furnishes as good an example as any and at the same time is within easy reach. This cavern has l)Gen excavated in the face of an ancient sea-cliff which now stands two hundred feet or more back from the shore and five or ten feet above sea level. It is about 25 feet deep by 20 high, and leads into the heart of a hill in the rear. This cave probably existed first as a subterranean cavern, which was broken into and enlarged by the waves when the island stood somcAvhat lower than to-day. The cutting of the sea-cliff and the enlarging of the cavern was carried on at one and the same time. Glass Window, Eleuthera and Hole-in-the-Wall near Elbow Cay, Abaco, are other instances of wave work in original sub- terranean caverns. In these latter cases, however, the caverns have Ix-en eroded at both ends, leaving only a thin section in the middle. These elevated sea-cliffs, cut by an ancient erosion, are not uncommon in the Bahamas. Another good example of them beside one already mentioned, occurs on the east side of Andros just south of Morgans Bluffs. The topography indicates that they were cut by the waves and their position shows that the surface of the Islands stood 5 or 10 feet lower than now. In the introduction of this chapter it was stated that the Bahama Islands were located in the midst of the hurricane area of the West Indies. This fact will be more fully appreciated by an examination of Plates XVIII-XXIV, Avhich show the tracks of hurricanes in the Bahamas since 1.S78. During ordinary storms the waves from the Atlantic roll in unchecked to break on the unprotected shores of the Bahamas, but these breakers are as nothing com- pared to the tremendous seas which are hurled against the Islands during hurricanes. In many places, particularly along exposed shores, immense blocks of limestone have been heaped into huge piles well up on the shore beyond the reach of the ordinary storm breakers. A typical example of this GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE IV Fig. 1. — VIEW siiowi.nc < i;(i,s.s-i!i;iii)hi) mkiiili;i. i.\ .kolia.n limestone at Nassau Fig. 2. — nearer view of ckoss-beuued stritcture in .eolian limestone at nassau PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC VIEWS THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 19 may be seen on Green Cay (Plate VI, Fig. 1, and Plate VII), near the elevated coral reef spoken of above. By an examination of these figures it will be seen that the thin-bedded coral rock in the foreground has been ripped up in huge slabs and piled in a rampart along the npper margin of the beach. An ancient one of these ramparts which have been recemented into solid rock ])y the accumnlation and consolidation of coral sand is shown (Plate VI, Fig. 2). TOPOGRAPHIC HISTORY. It is stated above that the Bahama Islands are honey-combed with caverns. This could only have taken place when the Islands stood higher than they do to-day. Terrestrial and marine ocean-holes together with banana- holes and brackish-water lakes are different lines of evidence showing that the sea has ready access to the interior of the Islands. This access is easily possible through the presence of these underground caverns. The deepest ocean-holes extend down some 300 feet beneath the surface of the water. This indicates that the Islands must have stood at least 300 feet higher when this excavation took place than they do to-day. The present attitude of the archi- pelago then is indicative of subsidence. The evidence furnished by the elevated coral reef on Green Cay, together with the elevated deposits carrying marine shells and the raised sea-cliffs, shows that the Islands have been elevated from 10 to 25 feet at no very remote date. So far as geological evidence is able to throw light on the problem, it is evident that the topographic history of the Islands has l^cen as follows : there was a period of elevation Avhen the Islands stood at least 300 feet higher than they do at the present time. During this epoch the dry land area of the Bahamas was very much greater than to-day. The extent of this land mass may be approximately reconstructed by imagining all the light-colored areas which now constitute the banks as standing above water level. (Plate X.) It will be seen then that the Islands as they exist to-day are mere remnants of what they were formerly and that the great reduction in land surface has been due to the effects of subsidence and marine erosion. During this period of elevation the limestone rock was dissolved into caverns and grottoes, similar to what exists now in the Shenandoah Valley and Florida. This period of elevation gave place to one of depression, when the land sunk beneath the level of the ocean to a position at least 15 feet lower than it now occupies. During this period the deposits bearing marine shells Avere made as well as the coral reef on Green Cay, and the ancient sea-cliffs were cut. The third chapter in the topographic 20 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY history opened when the Islands were elevated about 15 or 20 feet to their present position and brought up with them the marine deposits just mentioned. It is not known whether the Islands at the present time are undergoing subsidence or elevation or whether they are stationary. In order to establish this point bench marks have been erected at Nassau which are described in full in another part of this volume. It will be interesting for future geologists to determine the position of these marks after a lapse of twentj^-five or fifty years. FOSSILS OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. WITH A LIST OF THE NON-MARINE MOLLUSKS FOSSILS OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, WITH A LIST OF THE NON-MARINE MOLLUSKS BY WILLIAM H. DALL, A. M., Sc. D., Chirator Division of Mollusls, U. S. National Miiseiiin. INTRODUCTION. The material submitted to me by Dr. George B. Shattuck was chiefly collected by Dr. B. L. Miller, of Bryn Mawr College, and comprised specimens of the various calcareous rocks containing organic remains, as well as some fossils 'which had been removed from their associated matrix, all fully labelled with locality and other data. The rocks may be divided into two general groups, those which were formed in water, or sedimentary; and those formed of drifted sands more or less consolidated, or aeolian. In the main the fossils of the sedimentary rocks are of marine origin while those of the aeolian rocks are landshells, but in both there is some mixture, as dead marine shells from the beaches were included in the aeolian sands, or landshells washed or blown into the sea in the sedimentary beds, as happens daily under present conditions. All the material of both kinds of rock is ultimately organic or has been derived from the sea water through the medium of organisms which have secreted it in solid form, which has subsequently been reduced to sand by attrition and reconsolidated by partial resolution and deposition. In a broad sense this applies to both lime and silica as contained in these rocks, and more or less mingled with phosphoric acid and oxides of manganese or iron, of which the proportions in general are very small. It is probable that the amount of sand derived from crystalline rocks of the adjacent region, except in the form of floating pumice, is almost infini- tesimal. The fundamental rock of the Bahamas is sedimentary and was deposited at a moderate depth below the sea at a very recent geological epoch, all the 24 FOSSILS AND NON-MARINE MOLLUSKS marine fossils contained in it being now found living in the same region, at moderate depths. The terrestrial forms have invaded the Islands since their elevation above the sea level, and the aeolian rocks have also been formed since that event. They contain the remains of the first forms which occupied the recently elevated territory as well as those which by evolution and variation have been developed since. Hence if we could form some estimate of the definite time which has elapsed since the elevation of the Bahamas, we should have a measure of the rate of variation and specific evolution of the landshells referred to, under favorable conditions. It is hardly necessary to say that the data are yet quite insufficient to do more than point the way toward the solution of this problem, but to the fact that they do furnish some indications in this direction is due whatever inter- est the fossils herein noticed may possess. The first evidence of the existence of extinct species of landshells in the aeolian rocks of the Bahamas was given by the writer in the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Vol. XXV, No. 9, in 1894, in discussing some collections made by Professor Alexander Agassiz during the voyage of the yacht Wild Duck. The present collection adds considerably to our knowledge of these forms, and it may be supposed that further exploration would reveal other additions to the list. LIST OF STATIONS AND THE SPECIES COLLECTED AT EACH OF THEM. Station 1. — About two miles north of Governors Harbor, Eleuthera Island, about six feet above the water, near the shore. Cerion {sp.). Phacoides {Here) pensylvanicus Linne. Station 2. — Fossils from the Mount Vernon estate, about four miles east of Nassau, N. P., in the walls of the sink-holes described in Note No. 8. Area iScapharca) transversa Say. Chama (sp.) fragment. Phacoides (Here) pensylvanicus Linne. Cerithium (sp.) fragment. Torinia canaUfera C. B. Adams. Fissurella listeri Orbigny. Station 3.— Hard limerock from basement of Eum Cay. CJiama {sp.). Phacoides {Here) pensylvanicus Linne. Livona pica Linne. Agaricia {sp.). GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE V Fig. 1. — VIEW of iiauold roxi), new providexce, a typical brackish water lake Fig. 2. — view of great lake, watlimgs islamj, with foaji blowxN i.x heaps os the BEACH PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC VIEWS THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 25 Station 4. — Hard rock containing fossils from inland not far from Clarence Harbor, Long Island. Stromhus gigas Linne. Natica canrena Lamarck. Bulla striata Bruguiere. Phacoides (Here) pensylvanicus Linne. Hemicardium (sp.). Station 5. — Hard rock from Mangrove Cay, Andros Island. Porites (sp.). Phacoides (Here) pensylvanicus Linne. Station 5a. — Sink-hole in hill back of the town about half a mile inland and abont thirty-five feet above sea level. Favia (sp.). Station 6. — Hard rock from 30 to 35 feet above the sea level, in the wall of " Glass Window,'^ Eleuthera Island. Land shells. Cepolis varians Menke. Cerion (near cinerea Maynard). Station 7. — From shores of small salt pan or lake, abont two miles west of Clarence Harbor, Long Island. Cerion (sp.). Cerithium (Pyrazus) septemstriatum Say, vars. Anomalocardia cuneimeris Conrad. Station 8. — Eock (very hard) from wall of large sink-hole on Mount Vernon estate. New Providence, about four miles east of Nassau. Contains no recognizable fossils. Station 9. — Soft windblown sand rock from the quarry at the top of Nassau ridge, on Nassau street, New Providence. Cerion (sp.) fragments. Cepolis (sp.) fragments. Station 10. — Soft, fine-grained limerock from quarry near seawall,. Glenely settlement, Tarpum Bay. Phacoides (Here) pensylvanicus Linne. Hemicardium (sp.) young. Ghione cancellata Linne. Anomalocardia (sp.) young shell. Station 11. — Hard rock from basement of Rum Cay, material rather gravelly than sandy. Codakia orbicularis Linne. Hemicardium (sp.) young valve. 26 FOSSILS AND XOX-MARIXE MOLLUSKS Station" 12. — Hard rock broken off the high cliff on the west side of Xew Providence Ishind. This specimen was obtained from al)oiit 15 feet above sea level. Worn fragments of Cypnva {cinerea.'). Ohama, Phacoides. etc., in a shell gravel compactly consolidated. Station 13. — Soft calcareous sand rock, a few feet above sea level, at east side of Corie Sound. Phacoides (Here) pensylvanicus Linne. Station 14. — Soft calcareous sand of small unnamed key south of Eeids Cay, Middle Bight, Andros Island. The material seems to be water- deposited. The shells are loose, some were found near the beach, others in the marl. None were found living. The shells are a mixture of land and marine species. Trimcatella sp. fragment. Cepolis duclosiana Ferussac. Cerion rhyssum. new species, allied to C. dimidiatiim Pfr. Cerion ritchiei c/rayi Maynard. Cerion glans Kiister. Chione cancellata Linne. Cerithium sp. Natica canrena Lamarck. Nerita versicolor Lamarck. Spirula australis (Lam.) Pelseneer. Station 15. — Fossils from soft sand rock in quarry on Xassau street at top of Nassau ridge; New Providence Island (see also Xo. 9). Cerion agassizH Dall (extinct). Cepolis troscheli Pfeiffer. Cerithium sp. (worn). Station 16. — Fossils obtained from a soft !>and rock about five feet above sea level. This rock contains large masses of coral, some two or three feet in diameter, and is exposed about three-quarters of a mile from the ex- treme east end of Xew Providence along the north shore. Ostrea parasitica Gmelin. Margaritiphora radiata Leach. Lithophaga antiUarum Orbigny. Area occidentalis Philippi. Barbatia Candida Gmelin. Barbatia reticulata Gmelin. Codakia orbicularis Linne. Chama {macerophylla Chemnitz?) fragment. Macrocallista nebulosa Solander. Tellina radiata Linne. Cypraa cinerea Linne. AstraUum imbricatum Gmelin. Meandrites sp. ind. THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 27 Station IT. — Fossils from quarry at back of hospital grounds, Nassau, New Providence. At the base of the section is a hard white rock from which was obtained — Margaritiphora radiata Leach (Marine). Above this was a somewhat brown- ish, poorly cemented, sandy layer two or three feet thick, containing an extinct land shell, Cerion agassizii Dall. Above the sandy layer there is a hard white rock, containing no fossils. Station 18. — Fossils from the narrow part of Eleuthera Island opposite Savanna Sound from about five feet above sea level. The rock appeared to be a beach formation. Cerion (near agassizii Dall) fragments. Mytilus exustus Linne. Phacoides (Here) pensylvanicus Linne. Phacoides {Callucina) radians Conrad. Phacoides (Cavilucina) trisulcatus Conrad. Bulla striata Briiguiere. Natica canrena Lamarck. Acmwa punctulata Gmelin. Balanus sp. fragments. Station 19. — Fossils from geolian rocks along east side Rum Cay. Cerion lentiginosum Maynard. Cepolis varians Menke. Cepolis agassizii new species, near varians. Menke. Cepolis pharcida new species, near duclosiana Ferussac. Helicina rawsoni Pfeiffer (Watlings Id.). Barbatia sp. Chama sp. indct.. worn. Tectarius {muricatus'i L.) worn shell. Livona pica Linne. Claw of a small crab. Station 20. — Fine, rather hard, gravelly sand rock, with included worn calcareous peljl)les.. from about one mile north of Pigeon Hill, Eleuthera Island, and about one mile inland. Mytilus exustus Linne. Lampusia sp. (fragment). Chlorostoma sp. (young shell). Station '^1. — Bluff of Eleuthera Island about a mile north of Bluff settlement and six feet above sea level. Above the rock containing these fossils is a stratum of rock of geolian origin. The matrix of the fossils is a soft, fine, calcareous sand rock. Glycymeris americana Defrance. Phacoides {Here) pensylvanicus Linne. Cerithium floridanum Morch. 28 FOSSILS AND NON-MARINE MOLLUSKS Station 22. — ^^olian sand rock, one hundred yards north of " Glass Window/' Eleiithera Island, at about three feet above sea level. Cerion alta Maynard. Station 23. — Fine, rather soft, sand rock from near Clarence Harbor, Long Island, about three-quarters of a mile inland, Mytilus exustus Linne. Divaricella guadrisulcata Orbigny. Bulla striata Bruguiere. Mangilia sp. (fragment). Olivella nivea Gmelin? Trivia pediculus Linne. Litorina sp. (young shell). Bittium varium Pfeifler. Station 24. — Basement rock of Eum Cay. Same as Station 3. Hard water-laid sand rock with numerous shell fragments and worn calcareous pebbles. Stromhus gigas Linne. Murex nuceiis? Morch. Nassa amMgua Montagu. Pyrula papyratia Say, fragment. Area umbonata Lamarck. Mytilus exustus Linne. Balanus sp. fragments. Meandrites sp. worn. Station 25. — See Station 2. Station 26. — Hard, fine gravel rock from Arthurs Town, Cat Island, about half a mile inland. Glycymeris americana Defrance. Cardita (Glans) dominguensis Orbigny. Station 27. — Fossils from above " Glass AVindow."' Eleuthera Island. See also Station 6. Cerion blandi Pilsbry and Vanatta. Cepolis varians Menke. Station 28. — Fossils from three and a half miles N. W. of Clarence Harbor, Long Island, and half-way across the island. Area sp. fragment. Codakia orbieularis Linn6. Phaeoides (Here) pensylvanieus Linn6. Phacoides (Lucinisea) nassula Conrad. Chione cancellata Linne. Colum'bella mereatoria Linn§. Mitra sp. fragment. THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 29 Nassa ambigua Montagu. Trivia pediculus Linne. Polynices lactea Guilding. Natica canreria Lamarck. Cerithium algicola Adams. Cerithium semiferrugineuvi Lamarck. Bulla striata Bruguiere. Station 29. — Stratified rock along shore of Green Cay, a hard, calcareous sand rock. Phacoides (Here) pensylvanicus Linn6. Chama variegata Reeve. Nerita tessellata Gmelin. Station 30. — Eock in place about one and a half mile west of " The Caves," New Providence, and about five feet above sea level. Area reticulata Gmelin. Chama sarda Reeve. Phacoides {Here) pensylvanicus Linn6. Strigilla carnaria Linne. Purpura sp., fragment. Natica castrensis Dall. THE LANDSHELL FAUNA OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. The latest enumeration of the recent landshell fauna of the Bahamas which has come to my notice is the list given by Mr. Bendall in 1895 in the Proceedings of the jMalacological Society of London. This list contains at least two synonyms and several names of species which have been mistakenly attributed to the Bahamas, and six varieties of recognized species. Deduc- tion being made of these, there remains a total of seventy-six species then known to inhabit the Islands. To these are now added, for the purpose of making a complete enumeration of the known land and fresh-water fauna of the Bahamas, (1) a number of species in the collection of the U. S. National Museum, derived from various sources; (2) a certain number of species first collected by Mr. Owen Bryant, of Boston, on a recent trip to the Bahamas, the report on which, by the writer, will shortly be printed; and (3) the species collected by the present Expedition, and described in the text here following, preceding the general list of the fauna. The list now given comprises 172 forms, of which 25 may be regarded as varietal, leaving 147 recognized species so far as at present known, adding seventy-one species to the list of 1895. In view of the great variability of the genus Cerion, only those forms which seemed well characterized have been 30 FOSSILS AND XOX-MAIUXE MOLLUSKS admitted as of specific rank; fully as many more could be added if all those hitherto described were enumerated. I have no doubt that a large number of well-characterized new forms will be added to the catalogue of those now known, when the various islets are all thoroughly and systematically ex- plored. Of the well-established species of the existing fauna a certain number seem to have been lately introduced from Cuba or the adjacent region. These naturalized members of the fauna include the species of Oleacina, Plcurodonte, OrthosiijJa and Urocoptis, and one of the species of Bidimulus. The chief and most conspicuous elements of the strictly indigenous landshell population are the species of the genus Cepolis and of the genus Cerion, which together make up nearly half the existing fauna. Eight HcUdnidce and nine Cyclo- stomatidcB are next in importance in the census. Eemaining types are rep- resented usually by only one or two species each. The genera Cepolis and Cerion take their origin from the Oligocene period. During the Middle Oligocene the peninsular part of Florida was represented by a group of islets which must have greatly resembled the Bahamas of to-day. They were low with occasional lakes of fresh water, and generalized forms of Cepolis and Cerion made up the bulk of their landshell fauna, in which Helicina, Buliniulus, Urocoptis and Polygyra were represented, as well as Planorhis and Lioplax. So far as the scanty remains in the Bowden marl of nearly the same geological age afford evidence, the characteristics of the Floridian island fauna and that of Jamaica were as different as they are to-day, the fossils found having nothing in common. The present landshell fauna of south Florida is apparently not directly derived from this Oligocene assemblage, of which the more tropical types may have been eliminated during the comparatively cold Miocene epoch; but the similarity to the present Bahama fauna is sufficiently striking to suggest that the latter is the recent representative of the former. This representation does not proceed from a lineal succession on the spot, for it is probable that the entire archipelago of the Bahamas may Jiave been submerged during comparatively recent geological time. The islands of which it is composed are so low that their submergence during the changes of level which are known to have taken place in the adjacent high islands of Cuba, Haiti, etc., must have been almost inevitable. "We are led to believe that the types which existed in Florida also were represented in Cuba, which GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE VI Fig. 1. — VIEW showing thix-bedded limestone, green cay Fig. 2. — view showing a recemented boulder rampart, green cay PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC VIEWS THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 31 has never been entirely submerged since the Eocene epoch, by which exemp- tion they were preserved to again spread ont over the Bahamas when their elevation again rendered them suitable for colonization. That this was com- paratively recent is rendered probable by the extreme variability of the species now occupying the Bahamas and which are frequently connected by inter- grading forms, suggesting tliat the elimination which would be brought about in the course of time by natural selection and other factors, has not yet had time to complete its work of restricting the specific forms. This immigration took place from Haiti and Cuba, judging by the analogies of the fauna, but the marked similarity to the Florida Oligocene fauna is due not only to the presence of representative types but to the absence of a multitude of others which are very characteristic of either Haiti or Cuba. This is to be accounted for by the similarity of the environment. The types represented in the Bahamas, as formerly in Florida, are lowland forms, which for the most part affect the vicinity of the sea. These would be the first to be transferred to the new land and would find it congenial, while the species of the higher land and moister forests of Cuba and Haiti would be transferred much less readily, and, if successfully transplanted, would find the conditions of existence much less favorable. With the opportunity for occupying a favorable district in which there were no competing organisms we find, as in insular faunas generally, a gi-eat increase in variability, the development of a multitude of slightly varying types, and the greatest profusion of individuals. To this is due the fact that in Cuba and Haiti, from which the immi- grants came, the number of species of their type now living is much less in proportion to the total fauna than in the Bahamas. Cerion and Cepolis form about half the species of the Bahama landshell fauna, while in Cuba and Haiti these two genera form an insignificant percentage of the molluscan population. Another feature which confirms the view above stated is the fact that several of the fossil species of the Bahamas more nearly resemble some of those now living in Cuba or Haiti than they do the prevalent Bahama living forms; or, at best, are intermediate between them. The landshells obtained by the Bahama Expedition in a fossil state are the following species : 33 FOSSILS AND NON-MARINE MOLLUSKS Cepolis (Hemiteoohus) varians Menke. Helix varians Menke, 1829, Cat. Coll. Malsburg, p. 5; Conch. Cab. ed. II, Helix, pi. 109, figs. 1-5. Helix (Helicella) carnicolor (Ferussac) Pfeiffer, 1840, Symb. ad. hist. Hel., p. 37. Hemitrochus hmmastomus Swainson, 1840, Malac, p. 165. Fossil, above "Glass Window/' Eleuthera Island, Stations 6 and 27; east side Rum Cay in seolian rocks at Station 19. Living at Nassau, Eum Cay and Eock Island, Bahamas; Florida Keys, Cuba, etc. This species represented in the ajolian rock by a number of specimens and fragments, does not appear to differ from the recent shell except in its loss of color. Cepolis (Hemitrochus) aga'ssizii n. sp. Plate XII, Fig. 8. Fossil at Station 19, in geolian rock on the east side of Rum Cay. Shell resembling C. varians Menke, but larger, thinner, and with more inflated whorls; whorls about five and a half, turgid, with an appressed but distinct suture; sculpture of rather strong more or less irregiilar incremental lines, more prominent on the spire; surface polished, color white with two dark bands between the sutures on the spire and, on the last whorl, three, rather broad with narrower interspaces, the most anterior of which is per- ipheral; the base is white; aperture much as in C. varians, the lower and pillar lips reflected over but (in the type shell, not quite mature) not closing a minute perforation in the umbilical region. Height 20.3, max. diameter 18, min. diameter 16 mm. A single partly defective specimen of this species was obtained. It is larger than any of the known living species of Hemitrochus and so charac- teristic that I felt warranted in naming it after Prof. Alex. Agassiz, whose studies of the Bahamas have been so extensive. Cepolis (Plagioptycha) inaguana variety subandrosi Dall, nov. Fossil on small unnamed key south of Reids Cay, Middle Bight, Andros Island, at Station 14. Shell like C. inaguana Dall, but larger, with the pillar-lip broader and with traces of a narrow dark band just behind the suture at the aperture; behind this a subequal pale band, and behind the latter a broad band, more or less dark, extending to the next suture. Height 7.5; max. diameter 13.0; min. diameter 9.35 mm. A single specimen was found as above. THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 33 Cepolis (Hemitrochus) tkoscheli Pfeiffer. Helix troscheli Pfeiffer, 1846, Symb. ad. hist. Hel., Ill, p. 76; Conch. Cab. ed. II, Helix, pi. 109, figs. 6-11. Fossil in the quarry of aeolian rock on top of Nassau ridge, Nassau, New Providence Island, at Station 15. Living at New Providence, Gun Cay and Tnagua Island. This species agrees well with the recent shell with which we have iden- tified it. Cepolis (Plagioptycha) pharcida n. sp.' Plate XII, Figs. 2, 3. Fossil at Station 19, in seolian rock on the east side of Eum Cay. Shell depressed, thin, originally yellowish with a pale peripheral band, five whorled; spire depressed conic, whorls above slightly convex with a well- marked suture; nuclear whorls smooth, polished, later ones with fine, close threadlike sculpture following the incremental lines; periphery of the last whorl a little above the middle of the whorl and slightly prominent though rounded; base rounded, umbilicus small, deep; termination of the adult last whorl bent down, constricted, then expanded and below a little reflected, broad at the very short pillar, narrow above, with a fold or ridge projecting into the lumen of the whorl behind and parallel with the basal lip ; the plane of the aperture forming an angle of about 45° with the vertical axis of the shell. Height 10, major diameter 19, minor diameter 15.5 mm. This species is nearest to C. gregoriana Dall. Than C. duclosiana it is smaller, smoother, more polished and with the gular fold shorter, higher, and more obliquely set with regard to the lip in front of it. The sculpture of the present species is more like that of the Haitian Cepolis than that of most of the living Bahama Plagioptycha. The fossil species is the largest of the group to which it belongs, and recalls the Oligocene Cepolis instrumosa Dall, of the Tampa, Florida, silex beds, more than any of the recent species. Cerion (Strophiops) agassizii Dall. Plate XII, Fig. 5. Cerion (Maynardia) agassizii Dall, 1894, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., XXV, No. 9, p. 120. figs. 9, 10. Fossil in the seolian rock of the quarry at the top of Nassau ridge, Nassau, N. P., at Stations 9 and 15, and in the cpiarry back of the hospital grounds, Nassau, at Station 17. 34 FOSSILS AND NON-MARINE MOLLUSKS This is a large, heavy, variable species with a peculiar thick duplex sharp-edged lip. The shell varies from nearly smooth to rather finely and closely rib-striate. An imperfectly preserved form resembling this species was obtained from the narrow part of Eleuthera Island, opposite Savanna Sound, at Station 18, and another on the same island about two miles north of Governors Harbor, at Station 1. Cerion (Strophiops) rhyssum n. sp. Plate XII, Figs. 4, 6. Fossil in the ffiolian rock of a small unnamed key south of Keids Cay, Middle Bight, Andros Island, at Station 14. Shell large, heavy, solid, with a short parietal tooth, the axial tooth absent or obsolete; axis a hollow cylinder with a small umbilical perforation in the adult; whorls 10-11, the nepionic whorls at first smooth and polished, then delicately axially striated; form cylindrical with a short apical cone, sometimes much depressed; sculpture of the adult whorls of about IT rather sharp, slightly oblique ribs, with wider interspaces, the basal Avhorl attenuated and more finely wrinkled axially below; there is no basal cord or spiral stria- tion; peristome slightly thickened and continuous. The color is, of course, grayish white with traces of brown in the throat. Measurements of the two most contrasted specimens, in millimeters are : Height. Max Diameter. Height of last whorl. 33 16.0 17 26 17.5 16 This species belongs to Maynard's section Pinguitia and seems most closely related to C. dimidiatum Pfr., of which the short form is C. proteus Gimdlach ; a Cuban species found at Gibara. Cerion (Strophiops) grayi Maynard. Strophia grayi Maynard, 1894, Contr. to Science, II, p. 138, figs. 42, 43. Strophia ritcJiiei Maynard, 1894, op. cit. p. 135, fig. 41. Cerion (Strophiops) ritchiei, form grayi, Pilsbry, 1902, Man. Conch., XIV, p. 250, pi. 39, figs. 93, 94, 98, 99. Small unnamed key south of Eeids Cay, Middle Bight, Andros Island, at Station 14. Living at Highborn Cay, Maynard. This form is regarded by Dr. Pilsbry as a mutation of C. ritchiei which may perhaps be the case; I have retained the name grayi, however, as the specimens agree closely with tlie typical grayi while not so similar to the THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 35 form which was originally called ritchiei. The localities of the fossil and recent form are nearly abreast of each other, though some distance apart. Cerion (Strophtops) glans Kiister. Pupa glans Kiister, 1848, Conch. Cab. ed. II, p. 74, pi. 11, figs. 1, 2. Cerion {StropMops) glans Pilsbry, 1902, Man. Conch., XIV, p. 253, pi. 43, fig. 56. Fossil at Station 14, Andros Group, with the last species: also by Agassiz on Andros and Great Stirrup Cay. Living on Andros, New Provi- dence, and their associated cays and islets. This agrees with the figure cited from the Manual of Conchology. Cerion (Strophiops) blandi Pilsbry and Yanatta. Cerion hlandi Pilsbry and Vanatta, 1896, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 334, pi. 11, fig. 7; Man. Conch., XIV, p. 263, pi. 44, fig. 81. Fossil above "Glass Window," Eleuthera Island at Station, 2T. Living, Turks Island. The specimens above identified have a great resemblance externally to several species from the south side of Cuba, as for instance C. pannosum Maynard, but the parietal tooth is short in the fossil and long in the Cuban forms. Without a large and well-preserved series it is almost hopeless to identify forms of this group, but the specimens obtained are admirably rep- resented by the figure of hlandi in the Manual. Cerion (Strophiops) eleuthera P. and V., var. drupium Dall, nov. Cerion eleutJierw Pilsbry and Vanatta, 1896, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 333, pi. 11, figs. 19, 20; Man. Conch., 1902, XIV, p. 240, pi. 36, fig. 38. Fossil at Station 6, above "Glass Window," Eleuthera. Living, Eleu- thera Island. The shell above referred to has the cylindrical form of the gvhernatorium group; though the lip is not fully complete it has the outline of eleutherce, from which the form differs in having fine, close, feeble riblets over the whole shell. Cerion (Strophiops) lentiginosum Maynard. Strophia lentiginosa Maynard, 1889, Contr. to Science, I, p. 75, fig. 11, pi. 7, fig. 18. Cerion lentiginosum Pilsbry, 1902, Man. Conch., XIV, p. 248, pi. 37, figs. 60, 61. Fossil in teolian rocks on the east side of Eum Cay, at Station 19. Liv- ing on the west side of Eum Cay, in the interior. 36 FOSSILS AND NON-MARINE MOLLUSKS Cerion (Strophiops) maynardi Pilsbry and Vanatta. Strophia alta Maynard, MS. in Coll. U. S. N. M. ? = Cerion maynardi Pilsbry, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1895, p. 5. Fossil with C. eleiitherw var., above " Glass Window/' Eletithera Island, at Station 22. Living on Rum Cay, Maynard; Abaeo, Pilsbry. The fossil specimens agree closely with a specimen from Rum Cay, named for the U. S. National Museum by Mr. Maynard. It recalls C. grayi Maynard in its sculpture, but is smaller and more fusiform. Cerion sp. indet. Specimens of Cerion too imperfect for identification were noted in cal- careous rock collected at Station 1, on Eleuthera Island, and Station 7, on Long Cay. Helicina rawsoni Pfeiffer. Plate XIII, Figs. 1, 3. Helicina rawsoni Pfr., 1867, Malak. Blatt., XIV, p. 165. Ihid., 1876, Mon. Auric, pt. II, p. 261, Ball, 1894, Bull. Miis. Comp. Zool., XXV, No. 9, p. 118. Fossil in EEolian rock on the east side of Eum Cay. Living on the island of Inagua (type locality) and Watlings Island. This species Tintil now has not been figured. Trdncatella sp. indet. The decollate tip of a species of Truncatella was obtained at Station 14, on a small unnamed key, south of Reids Cay in the Middle Bight of Andros Island. As there seems to be no recent list of the Bahama landshells in which the distribution according to the several islands is noted, the following catalogue has been carefully compiled from the literature and from the material pre- served in the collections of the U. S. National Museum. Varieties for the most part are omitted, as to include them would have greatly expanded the list without any obvious benefit. Note has been made of synonymic deductions from previous lists, and nearly all species not positively known to inhabit the Bahamas have been excluded. In examining the collection to make sure of getting all the species repre- sented in it from the Bahamas, several forms were found which appeared to be undescribed or incorrectly identified with Cuban or Haitian species. Descrip- tions of these follow in order that they may be included in the list. GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE VII Fig. 1. — VIEW showing boulder rampart, green cay Fig. 2. — nearer view of boulder rampart PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC VIEWS THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 37 Cepolis (Hemitrochus) exumana n. sp. Plate XIII, Figs. 4, 7. Shell small, solid, turbinate, with five moderately convex whorls, evenly rounded at the periphery; nuclear whorls polished, translucent, usnally dark brown or darker than the rest of the shell; sculpture of fine, small, sharp riblets, in harmony with the lines of growth, with equal or wider interspaces, and less evident on the last whorl ; color very varial)le, sometimes unicolor, from creamy white to dark brown without bands; other specimens are banded with brown on a creamy ground, generally darker above, lighter below, and with a dark brown narrow peripheral band .above a narrow white one; some are brown with a peripheral and a snbsutural narrow white band, or numerously banded on a lighter ground, or with the bands broken up into delicate pencillings; the last whorl descends slightly at the aperture, which is quite rounded, with a strong reflected peritreme, whitish or bright rose pink; the lip is reflected over and nearly closes the umbilicus; there is little callus on the body, no gular fold, and the throat is usually dark colored. Height 10, max. diameter 12.5, min. diameter 11 mm. This pretty species was collected on Exuma Island by Dr. J. J. Brown. It is nearest to C. pcniciUala, Gould (not Poey) from Matanzas, Cuba, which is a less solid, slightly larger shell with a lump on the basal side of the aperture when fully mature, while the present species has no trace of any gular fold. Types 37668-9, U. .S. Xational Museum. Cepolis (Plagioptycha) gregoriana n. sp. Plate XIII, Figs. 5, 8. Shell depressed with four and a half whorls, a strongly marked suture, and narrowly perforate umbilicus; periphery evenly rounded, often marked by a narrow pale band ; sculpture, following a smooth nucleus, of numerous, sharp, low close-set riblets, in harmony with the lines of growth, separated by slightly wider interspaces and evenly covering the whole shell ; the surface is dull, not polished, and the color a more or less pronounced reddish brown ; the last whorl near its termination is sharply constricted and depressed, its margin expanded and below slightly reflected, especially over the umbilicus, but above simple and sharp; a prominent white gular fold is set obliquely within the aperture, which is very oblique; aperture oval, with a thin callus on the body. Height 7, max. diameter 15, min. diameter 11.5 mm. 38 FOSSILS AND I^ON-MARINE MOLLUSKS Collected by Messrs. Bean and Riley of the U. S. National Museum, at ' Gregorytown, Eleuthera Island. Types Xo. 173183, U. S. N'ational Museum. This species is more like the fossil form from Eum Cay (C. pharcidum Dall) than any of the known living species but is much smaller, more sharply sculptured, and has the gular fold shorter, more oblique, and relatively more prominent. It is notable for its dull, unpolished surface, wliich presents a marked contrast to the polish of the duelosiana group. Cepolis (PLAGiorTYCiiA) DUCLOSiAXA variety columbiana Dall, nov. Plate XIII, Figs. 6, 9. ■ Shell similar to C. duelosiana Ferussac, but smaller, the apex proportion- ately more elevated and pointed; the number of whorls the same, but the gular fold lower, more elongated, less oblique, and closer to the pillar and lower lip. Height 7.5, max. diameter 1-1, min. diameter 13 mm. Watlings Island, U. S. Fish Commission. Types No. 109110, U. S. Na- tional Museum. Cepolis (Plagioptycha) inaguana n. sp. Plate XII, Fig. 1 ; Plate XIII, Fig. 2. Shell small, subturbinate, with four and a half rounded whorls united l)y a strongly marked suture; spire moderately elevated, periphery evenly rounded, base moderately convex with a small perforate umbilicus nearly closed l)y a reflection of the pillar-lip; color olivaceous with a brilliantly polished perios- tracum; nucleus smooth, the remainder of the whorls sculptured with sharp, elevated lines with wider interspaces and oblique curvature, strongest on the earlier whorls but persistent over the whole shell; aperture depressed, ol)li(|U(', the whorl behind it slightly constricted; upper and outer lips simple, thin; pillar-lip reflected over the umbilicus (which it does not quite close) and on the base; there is no indication of a gular fold. Height 7, max. diameter 10.."), min. diameter 8 mm. Inagua Island, Bahamas, Lea Collection in the U. S. National Museum, X^o. 105793. The most marked characteristic of this little shell, after its small size and sharp sculpture, is the entire absence of a gular fold. What appears to be a larger variety of this, with a bi'oador pillar-lip and coloration of brown bands, was found in the fossil state at Station 11, in the Andros group and named suhandrosi. the bahama islands 39 list of bahama landshells. (recent and fossil.) Note. — N. P. ^New Providence Id., chiefly in the vicinity of Nassau. Cat Island and San Salvador are regarded as identical in this list. Oleacina soUdula Pfr., New Providence, Great and Little Abaco, Andros Id. Pleurodonte (ZacJirysia) provisoria Pfr., N. P., Abaco. Cepolis {Hemitroclius) varians Menke, N. P., Inagiia, Crooked Id., Bleuthera, Rum Cay, Andros, Long Id., Abaco, Bahamas. Florida Keys. Cepolis (Hemitrochus) milleri Pfr., Long Cay, Fortune Id. Cepolis (Hemitrochus) constantior Weinland, Inagua, Rum Cay, Turks Id., Crooked Id., Long Id. Cepolis (Hemitrochus) carihaa Weinland, Crooked Id., Eleuthera, Inagua. Cepolis (Hemitrochus) agassizii Dall, fossil. Rum Cay. Cepolis (Hemitrochus) gallopavonis Val., Turks Id., Watlings Id. Cepolis gallopavonis var. caracaloides Pilsbry, Ambergris Cay, Turks Id. group. Cepolis (Hemitrochus) troscheli Pfr., N. P., Gun Cay, Inagua. Cepolis troscheli var. calacala Weinland, N. P., Great Inagua. Cepolis troscheli var. hrowni Pilsbry, Cat Id. Cepolis (Hemitrochtis) rnultifasciata Weinl. and Marts., Crooked Id., Inagua. Cepolis multifasciata var. polytaniata Pilsbry, Crooned Id. Cepolis (Hemitrochus) filicosta Pfr., Eleuthera. Cepolis (Hemitrochus) maynardi Pilsbry, Andros. Cepolis (Hemitrochus) xanthophacs Pilsbry, Inagua, Long Id. Cepolis (Hemitrochus) exumana Dall, N. P., Exuma Id. Cepolis (Plagioptycha)macroglossa Pfr., Great Inagua. Cepolis (Plagioptycha) duclosiana Fer., N. P. Cepolis duclosiana var. salvatoris Pfr., Cat Id. (or San Salvador), Eleuthera. Cepolis duclosiana var. columhiana Dall., Watlings Id. Cepolis (Plagioptycha) smirna Dall, Riding Point, Grand Bahama. Cepolis (Plagioptycha) abacoensis Martens, Abaco. Cepolis (Plagioptycha) inaguana Dall, Inagua. Cepolis inaguana var. suhandrosi Dall, Andros group, fossil. Cepolis (Plagioptycha) gregoriana Dall, Gregorytown, Eleuthera Id. Cepolis (Plagioptycha) pharcida Dall, Rum Cay, fossil. Cepolis (Plagioptycha) bahamensis Pfr., N. P. Cepolis bahamensis var. holostoma Pilsbry, Turks Id. Cepolis (Plagioptycha) androsi Dall, Mangrove and Golding Cays, South Bight of Andros group. Cepolis (Plagioptycha) sargenti Bland, Little Inagua. Cepolis (Plagioptycha) indistincta Fer., var. disculus Deshayes, Turks Id., Eleu- thera. Cepolis (Plagioptycha) albersiana Pfr., Great Inagua, Haiti. Cepolis (Eurycampta) bryanti Pfr., Water Cay, Ragged Id. Thysanophora saxicola Pfr., N. P., Cuba at Matanzas; Haiti. Thysanophora (vortex var.f) inaguensis Weinland, Little Inagua. Thysanophora vortex Pfr., N. P.; Watlings Id.; Great Abaco; Mangrove Cay, Andros; also Florida, Bermuda, etc. Thysanophora (Ptycliopatula) dioscoricola C. B. Adams, N. P., also Jamaica, Florida, etc. Polygyra cereolus Miihlfeldt, var. microdonta Deshayes, Watlings Id.; Great and Little Abaco; N. P.; Mangrove Cay, South Bight of Andros group. 40 FOSSILS AND NON-MAEINE MOLLUSKS Guppya gundlachi Pfr., N. P.; Watlings Id.; also Florida, etc. Oxystyla undata Bruguiere, N. P.; Andros; Trinidad, etc. Alicroceramus gossei Pfr., var. providentia Pilsbry, Mangrove Cay, South Bight of Andros; N. P.; Little Abaco. Microceramxis siviftii Bland, Turks Id.; Inagua; Watlings Id. Bulimulus {BuUmulus) sepxilcJiralis Poey, N. P., at Nassau; Cuba, at Havana. BuUmulus (Drymwus) bahamensis Pfr., N. P., Durham Creek, Great Inagua; Eleuthera; Mangrove Cay, Andros; Little Abaco; also Haiti. Bulimulus sp. indet., Watlings Id. Urocoptis (Gongylostoma) hahamensis Pfr., Nassau. Urocoptis bahamensis var. providentia Pilsbry, Mangrove Cay, South Bight of Andros; Nassau, N. P. Cerion Cerion Cerion Cerion Cerion Cerion ties Cerion Cerion Cerion Cerion Cerion Cerion Cerion Cerion Cerion Cerion Cerion Cerion Cerion Cerion Cerion Cerion Cerion Cerion Cerion Cerion Cerion Strophiops Stropliiops Strophiops Strophiops Strophiops Strophiops Strophiops Strophiops Strophiops Strophiops Strophiops Strophiops Strophiops Strophiops Strophiops Strophiops Strophiops Strophiops Strophiops Strophiops Strophiops Strophiops Strophiops Strophiops Strophiops Strophiops Strophiops dow, Eleuthera Cerion (Strophiops Cerion (Strophiops Cerion (Strophiops Cerion (Strophiops Cerion (Strophiops Cerion (Strophiops Cerion (Strophiops Cerion (Strophiops Cay. Cerion glans obesum Dall, Lon South Bight of Andros. incanum Binney, Gun Cay; also Florida Keys. incanoide Pilsbry and Vanatta, Turks Id. stevensoni Dall, Rum Cay (not Long Id.). felis Pilsbry and Vanatta, Cat Id. sculptum Poey (Loc.?). regina Pilsbry and Vanatta, Turks Island, with many varie- calcareum Pfr., Little Inagua. sarcostomum Pilsbry and Vanatta, Little Inagua. columna Pilsbry and Vanatta, Turtle Cove, Great Inagua. regium Benson, Castle Island, on Crooked Island bank. weinlandi Kurr, Crooked Island. nudum Maynard, Clarence Harbor, Long Island. brunneum Dall, Governors Harbor, Eleuthera. variabile Dall, Red Bay, Northwest point of Andros Id. variabile var. saurodon Dall, Red Bay, Andros Id. variabile var. pupilla Dall, Red Bay, Andros Id. inflatum Maynard, Salena Point, Acklin Id. plegmatum Dall, Exuma. rhyssum Dall, Andros group (fossil). gubernatorium Crosse, Nassau, N. P. agassizii Dall, N. P. (fossil). milleri Pfr., Duck Cay, Exuma group. northropi Dall, Bahamas (probably near Gun Cay). pillsburyi Pilsbry and Vanatta, Gun Cay. niteloide Dall, Water Cay, Salt Cay bank. abacoense Pilsbry and' Vanatta, Abaco. maynardi Pilsbry and Vanatta, Abaco. Fossil at Glass Win- album Maynard, west coast of Rum Cay, near the salt pond. browni Maynard, north side of Rum Cay. lentiginosum Maynard, interior west part of Rum Cay. ritchiei Maynard, Highborn Cay; Mangrove Cay, Andros Id. aff. ritchiei, Great Ragged Cay. ritchiei vannostrandi Pilsbry and Vanatta. (Loc?) eburneum Maynard, U Cay, north of Highborn Cay. glans Kiister, Andros Id., Gun Cay, N. P., and Great Ragged Cay in the North Bight and Mangrove Cay in the THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 41 Cerion glans varium Bonnet, Nassau. Cerion glans cinereum Maynard, Ragged Cay, N. P., Gun Cay. Cerion glans coryi Maynard, Nassau, near Fort Charlotte, and Egg Id., Eleuthera. Cerion glans neglectum Maynard, Nassau, and Great Stirrup Cay. Cerion glans griseum Maynard, near South Bight of Andros Id. Cerion glans bimarginatum Maynard, Green Cay and Little Golding Cay, Andros. Cerion (Strophiops) maynardi Pilsbry and Vanatta, Rum Cay, Eleuthera. Cerion (Strophiops) blandi Pilsbry and Vanatta, Turks Island. Fossil at Glass Window, Eleuthera. Cerion (Strophiops) eximium Maynard, Cat Id., Nassau, N. P. Cerion (Strophiops) eximium fraternum Pilsbry, Cat Island. Cerion (Strophiops) agrestinum Maynard, south side of New Providence Id. Cerion (Strophiops) oiceni Dall, Indian Hole, Little Abaco; Sugarloaves, and also the south side of Great Abaco opposite Marsh Harbor; Grand Bahama. Cerion oweni incisum Dall, Sweeting's village and Stranger Cay, Abaco. Cerion oweni vermiculum Dall, Mathews Point, west side Great Abaco. Cerion (Strophiops) bendalU Pilsbry and Vanatta, Abaco. Cerion (Strophiops) martensi Weinland, Crooked Island. Cerion (Strophiops) multistriatum Pilsbry and Vanatta, Crooked Island. Cerion (Strophiops) marmoratum Pfr., Fortune Id. Cerion (Strophiops) fordii Pilsbry and Vanatta, Bahamas (Andros?). Cerion (Diacerion) bryanti Pfr., southern part of Inagua. Cerion (Diacerion) rubicundum Menke, northwest point and eastern end of Inagua Island. Cerion (Diacerion) heterodon Pilsbry, Inagua. Cerion (Diacerion) dalli Maynard, Inagua. Cerion (Diacerion) duplodon Pilsbry and Vanatta, Bahamas. (Inagua group?) Strobilops hubbardi Brown, Watlings Id., also Florida, etc. Pupoides marginatus Say, var. modicus Gould, Andros, Nassau, Turks Id. Also Haiti, Bermuda, Florida. Bifidaria servilis Gould, Andros; N. P.; Watlings Id., Turks Id.; also Jamaica, Bermuda, etc. Vertigo ovata Say, Mangrove Cay, Andros; also Cuba, Florida, etc. Subulina octona Bruguiere, N. P., Antilles generally. Opeas octonoidea C. B. Adams, N. P.; Mangrove Cay, Andros. Opeas subula Pfr., N. P., Great Abaco; Great Inagua; Haiti; Key West, Florida. Opeas micra Orbigny, N. P.; also South America. Opeas pauperciila C. B. Adams, Mangrove Cay, Andros; Nassau; Jamaica. Lamellaxis pallidus C. B. Adams, N. P.; also Jamaica. Melaniella gracillima Pfr., N. P.; Andros; Watlings Id.; Florida, Cuba, St. Thomas, etc. Ca:cilioides aciciila Miiller, Nassau, N. P.; Florida; Bermuda. Zonitoides rainusculns Binney, Nassau, N. P.; also Florida, Bermuda, Jamaica. Succinea ochracina Gundlach, N. P.; Cuba. Succinea barbadensis Guilding, Andros; Nassau. Also Bermuda, the Antilles, etc. Veronicella schivelyw Pilsbry, var. bahamensis Dall, Nassau, N. P.; Little Abaco. The type form at Bermuda. Segmentina (Planorbula) dentata Gould, and Segmentina dentata var. edentata C. B. Adams, Watlings Id.; Mangrove Cay, Andros; Cuba, St. Thomas, Porto Rico and Jamaica. Planorbis redfieldi C. B. Adams, Andros; Jamaica. Physa acuta Draparnaud, Arthurs Town, Cat Id.; Mangrove Cay, Andros; the An- tilles generally, western and southern Europe. 42 FOSSILS AND NON-MARINE MOLLUSKS Melampus gundlachi Pfr., Nassau, the Antilles, Florida. Melampus flavus Gmelin, Nassau, the Antilles, Florida. Melampus caffeus Linne, N. P.; Antilles, Florida. Detracia hiMoides Montagu, N. P.; Andros; also Bermuda, Florida, etc. Microtralia minuscula Dall, Watlings Id.; also south Florida. Plecotrema cuhense Pfr., Cuba, Bernauda and probably the Bahamas. Pedipes miraMlis Miihlfeldt. and var. tridens Pfr., Andros; the Antilles generally, and Bermuda. Blauneria pellucida Pfr., Andros Id., Florida, Antilles. Sayella crosseana var. hahamensis Dall, Watlings Id.; also Haiti at Lake Henriquillo. The type form in Florida. Onchidium -floridanum Dall, Florida, Bermuda and probably the Bahamas. Williamia krebsi Morch, Florida Keys to Montevideo. Siphonaria alternata Say, Andros, Little Abaco, Gun Cay, Florida, Bermuda. Siphonaria Uneolata Orbigny, Florida, Bermuda, Cuba, St. Thomas. Gadinia carinata Dall, Colon, Barbados, Cuba, Bermuda (as Siphonaria henica Ver- rill and Bush), doubtless also in the Bahamas. Annularia scabrosa (Humphrey) Pfr., N. P.; Turks Id.; Jamaica. Rhytidopoma euploca Dall, Inagua. Colobostylus hydei Weinland, Great Inagua, Crooked Id., Fortune Id. Colobostylus hjalmarsoni Pfr., Crooked Id., Turks Id. Colobostylus semilabris Lamarck, Crooked Id. Colobostylus glabratus Reeve, Turks Id. Colobostylus inaguensis Weinland, Little Inagua; Crooked Id. Chondropoma bryanti Pfr., Great Inagua. Chondropoma revinctum Poey, Nassau, N. P., by the Grantstown road; Manzan- illo, Cuba. Chondropoma watlingense Dall, Watlings Id. Opisthosolen biformis Pfr., Turks Id.; Inagua; Great and Little Abaco; Flamingo Cay; Exuma. Opisthosolen biformis var. bahamensis Shuttleworth, Nassau, N. P., Andros, Abaco. Opisthosolen rawsoni Pfr., Watlings Id.; Inagua, Crooked Id. Helicina calida Weinland, Crooked Id. Helicina rawsoni Pfr., Inagua; Rum Cay; Watlings Id. Opisthosolen biformis Pfr., Turks Id.; Inagua; Great and Little Abaco; Flamingo Helicina fasciata Lamarck, Mangrove Cay, South Bight of Andros; Florida Keys; Porto Rico; Dominica; Guadeloupe; Martinique. Helicina Candida Pfr., Turks Id. Helicina bryanti Pfr., N. P.; Inagua; Mangrove Cay, Andros. Trochatella rupestris Pfr. (Bahamas fide Bendall, Cuba fide Pfeiffer). Schazicheila bahamensis Pfr., N. P.; Abaco. Alcadia minima Orbigny, var.? (N. P. fide Bendall, Cuba fide Orbigny). Truncatella caribwensis Say, Watlings Id.; Florida, Bermuda, and the Antilles. Truncatella pulchella Pfr., Watlings Id.; Andros; Southwest Florida, etc. Truncatella bilabiata Pfr., Long Rock, Abaco; Watlings Id.; N. P.; Florida, etc. Truncatella subcylindrica Pulteney, N. P.; Watlings Id., Florida, etc. Truncatella clathrus Lowe, Riding Pt., Grand Bahama; Bermuda, Key West, Porto Rico, St. Thomas, etc. Assiminea concolor C. B. Adams, Watlings Island; Mangrove Cay, South Bight of Andros; Bermuda; Key West, and vicinity of Tampa, Florida. GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE VIII Fig. 1. — VIEW of raised coual keef. overlaid by .^colian limestone, green cay. Fig. 2. — nearer view of raised coral reef PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC VIEWS THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 43 MARINE FOSSILS OF THE BAHAMAS. Underneath the geolian rock in which, for the most part, the landshells were found, is an older formation which, from its structure and contents, appears to have been formed as a marine sediment in shallow water. This forms the basement rock of the existing Islands. It is sometimes composed of fine calcareous sand, and other portions are composed of a calcareous gravel in which the worn remains of large gastropods, like Strombus, or large bivalves, broken up by the action of the surf and mixed with worn pieces of coral, form a gravel with pebbles of appreciable size. A third variety of this rock is chiefly composed of minute oolitic granules, and from its fossil contents appears to have been deposited in lagoons where the evaporation of the sea water had markedly increased the proportion of salt in the water, forming " salines " or '' salt pans " as in Watlings Island, or Turks Island of the present archipelago. Still another form, usually nearly or quite destitute of recognizable fossils, shows the oolitic structure in nodules of larger size, from a few millimeters to a couple of centimeters in diameter. The marine molhisks are those of the present shallow-water fauna of the Bahamas. All of them, so far observed, occur living and unchanged in the present waters of the archipelago. 1 have given under the lieads of the several stations a list of the species found by the expedition at each locality from which material was received. The following species may be regarded as characteristic forms of the sedi mental Bahama limestone as collected bv the Expedition. Corals. Porites. Meandrites. Favia. Agaricia. All too imperfectly preserved to be specifically identified but probably identical with living species of the present reefs. Crustaceans. Balanus, fragments. Claw of crab. MOLLUSKS. Ostrea parasitica Gmelin (Mangrove oyster). Mytilus exustus Linne. Lithophaga antillarum Orb. Margaritiphora radiata Leach. 44 FOSSILS AND NON-MARINE MOLLUSKS Area occidentaUs Phil. Plate XI, Fig. 4. Area umhonata Lam. Barbatia Candida Gmelin. Barbatia reticulata Gmelin. Plate XII, Figs. 7, 9. Scapharca transversa Say. Glycyvieris americana Defrance. Cardita (Glans) dominguensis Orb. Chama macerophylla Chemnitz. Chama sarda Reeve. Hemicardium medium Linne. Codakia orbicularis Linne. Plate XI, Fig. 2. Phacoides pensylvanicus Linne. Plate XI, Fig. 1. Phacoides radians Conrad. Phacoides trisulcatus Conrad. Phacoides nassula Conrad. Divaricella quadrisulcata Orb. Anomalocardia cnneimeris Conrad. Chione cancellata Linne. Macrocallista nebulosa Solander. Telliria radiata Linne. Plate XI, Fig. 3. Strigilla carnaria Linne. Bulla striata Bruguiere. Olivella nivea Gmelin. Nassa ambigua Montagu. Golumbella mercatoria Linne. Murex nuceus Morch. Pyrula papyratia Say. Cypro'a cinerea Linne. Trivia pediculus Linne. Strombus gigas Linne. Bittium varium Pfr. Cerithium floridanum Morch. Cerithium algicola Adams. Cerithium septemstr latum Say. Cerithitim semiferrugineum Lam. Tectarius muricatus Linne. Torinia canalifera Adams. Natica canrena Lam. Natica castrensis Dall. Polynices lacteus Guilding. Acma:a ptmctulata Gmelin. Astralium imbricatum Gmelin. Livona pica Linne. Nerita versicolor Lam. Nerita tesselata Gmelin. Fissurella listeri Orb. Spirilla australis (Lam.) Pels. The absence of echinoderms from this list is noticeable. No attempt has been made to identif}' the foraminifera, which are not numerous. THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 45 THE FAUNA OF THE " SALT PANS." The fauna of the hypersaline pans or lagoons is perhaps worth a few paragraphs of comment. In 1894 the writer made a stud}' of a quantity of material from Watlings Island lagoon, collected by Prof. A. Agassiz, Dr. J. J. Brown and the IT. S. Fish Commission. This comprised species living in the highly saline waters of the lagoon and others which frequent the dry land on its borders, both being mingled in the drift on the shores of the lagoon. Several species were found to be characteristic of the lagoon Avaters, though probably all its population was derived from species ordinarily frequenting the shallow water of the sea adja- cent to the shores of the island, and which, notwithstanding the gradual increase in salinity after the lagoon was cut oif from the free access of sea water, had managed to survive. These species under the peculiar conditions in which they were then placed became modified until several of them developed Avell-marked specific differences. The changes to which they were subjected appear to have been an increase in the salinity and consequently in the specific gravity of the water; higher temperature; and greater exposure to sunlight. All the lagoon species as compared with their nearest allies exhibited certain common differences; these were tenuity of shell, diminutive size, and intensification of color when the species was other than black or white. These differences may reasonably be ascribed to the new conditions operating upon all the species exposed to them. The list is as follows : Mytilus dominguensis Orbigny, variety. Avicula atlantica Lamarck, variety. Melina ohJiqua Lamarck, dwarfed form. Tellina mera Hanley, variety. *Cyrena colorata Prime. *Anomalocar(lia leptalea Dall. Haminea antillarum Orbigny, dwarfed. *Tornatina parviplica DalL Assiminea auheriana Orbigny. *GeritMum (Pyrazus) rmvsoni Krehs. *Cerithiitm var. clegeneratuvi DalL *Cerithidea tenuis Pfeiffer. The species preceded by an asterisk are peculiar to the lagoons. More recently, through the kind offices of Mr. C. Lyon Hall and Mr. E. Furbush of Port au Prince, Haiti, I obtained a lot of material from the great salt lagoon known as Lake Henri qui llo. This was somewhat adulterated by the presence of a number of species from the fre.sh water streams which fall 46 FOSSILS AND NON-MARINE MOLLUSKS into the lake, but, abstraction made of these, the facies of the remainder is strikingly like that of the Watlings Island group of shells. Common to the Bahama and Haitian lagoons are : Mytilus dominguensis Orb. Cerithiutn degeneratuni Dall. Cerithidea tenuis Pfr. An Anomalocardia occurs abundantly, but it has been less modified than A. leptalea, the place of which in the Haitian list it occupies. It is more like the fossil form from the salt pond on Long Island at Station 7. The most abundant shell by far in the lot is a Cerithium, which occupies much the same place in the Haitian list that C. raivsoni does in the Bahama one, but which is obviously a modification of C. mimmum Gmelin. What appears to be a species of Parastarte, a Bittium, and a Dentalinm complete the Haitian list which, on the whole, gives the impression that the water must be less saline than in the Watlings lagoon, or that it has been in existence a shorter time, so that the surviving species have not reached so high a degree of modification. A careful study of the fauna of all the West Indian salt pans would doubtless give interesting results. Explanation of Plates. The figures are natural size except when otherwise stated. Plate XI. Characteristic Marine Bahama Fossils. Fig. 1. Phacoides perisylvanicus Linne. Fig. 2. Codakia orbicularis Linne. Fig. 3. Tellina radiata Linne. Fig. 4. Area occidentalis Philippi. Plate XIL Fig. 1. Cepolis iPlagioptycha) inagnana Dall, profile; 3/2. See p. 38. Fig. 2. Cepolis (Plagioptycha) pharcida Dall, base. See p. 33. Fig. 3. Cepolis (Plagioptycha) pharcida Dall, profile. See p. 33. Fig. 4. Cerion (Strophiops) rhyssum Dall, normal. See p. 34. Fig. 5. Cerion {Strophiops) agassizii Dall. See p. 33. Fig. 6. Cerion (Strophiops) rhyssum Dall, depressed mutation, shell not quite adult. See p. 34. Fig. 7. Area (Barbatia) reticulata Gmelin, interior of left valve; 3/2. Fig. 8. Cepolis (Plagioptycha) agassizii Dall. The outer lip is defective above- See p. 32. Fig. 9. Area (Barbatia) reticulata Gmelin, exterior of right valve; 3/2. GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE IX Fig. 1. — VIEW of ocean hole, tarpum bay, eleuthera Fig. 2. — view of old sea-cliff with cavern, new providence PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC VIEWS THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 47 Plate XIII. Fig. 1. Helicina rawsoni Pfeiffer, base; 3/2. See p. 36. Fig. 2. Cepolis (PlagioptycJia) inaguana Dall, base; 3/2. See p. 38. Fig. 3. Helicina rawsoni Pfeiffer, profile; 3/2. See p. 36. Fig. 4. Cepolis {Hemitrochus) exumana Dall, base; 3/2. See p. 37. Fig. 5. Cepolis {Plagioptycha) gregoriana Dall, base; 3/2. See p. 37. Fig. 6. Cepolis duclosiana variety columbiana Dall, base; 3/2. See p. 38. Fig. 7. Cepolis {Hemitrochus) exumana Dall; 3/2. See p. 37. Fjg. 8. Cepolis {Plagioptycha) gregoriana Dall, profile; 3/2. See p. 37. Fig. 9. Cepolis duclosiana variety coluvihiana Dall, profile; 3/2. See p. 38. TIDES AND BENCH MARKS AT NASSAU, NEW PROVIDENCE TIDES AND BENCH MARKS AT NASSAU, NEW PROVIDENCE BY L. p. SHIDY, Chief of the Tidal Division, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. INTRODUCTION. In the latter part of June, 1903, Dr. Oliver L. Fassig, a member of the Bahama Expedition of the Geographical Society, of Baltimore, established an automatic tide gauge at iSTassau, Xew Providence. The gauge, one of the Nassau Harbor .o^ ScA uE Of Feet. Fig. 1.— Diagram Showing Location of Tide Gauge and Bench Marks. Saxton type, No. 49, scale 1 : 9 (Plate XIV, Fig. 2), was loaned by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey to the Geographical Society of Baltimore. Through the courtesy of ]\Ir. H. ^I. Flagler, this gauge was located in the Basin or Boat Camber of the Colonial Hotel grounds, about an eighth of a mile 52 TIDES AND BEXCII MARKS east of the Xavv Yard, and a li\ed tide staff was secured to the north side of the gauge house (Phite XV, Fig. 1). Mr. W. C. Townsend, an employee of the Colonial Hotel, was engaged as tide ohserver, and |)roved to he a faithful and careful man, so that the first year of records, which are now available, are quite satisfactory. The preceding sketcli shows the location of the tide gauge and bench marks. DESCRIPTION OF BENCH MARKS. The three following bench marks were estaljlished l)y Dr. Fassig and con- nected by spirit levels -with tlie fixed tide staff' : Bench Mark Ko. 1 (Plate XV, Fig. 2) is the raised liorizontal line of a circular bronze tahlet, about 3 inches in diameter, and 10 inches aliove the ground, which is set in the side of a granite post, in the grounds of the Colonial Hotel, about 225 feet southeast from the tide gauge and 100 feet north of tlie eastern wing of tlie hotel. The stone ]")rojects about 30 inches out of the ground, the upper portion being dressed to about 12 x 18 inches. The base is cemented into a socket cut in the solid coral rock and surrounded by blocks of limestone set in portland cement. On the top of the stone is a bronze plate bearing the following inscription : THIS BENCH MARK WAS ESTAHI.ISHED BY THE BAHAMA EXPEDITIOX OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE IX-^ CO-OPERATIOX WITH THE UNITED STATES COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY AND BY THE COURTESY OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS IN THE Y'EAR OF OUR LORD 1903 SIR GILBERT THOMAS CARTER GOVERNOR BAHAMA ISLANDS DANIEL COIT OILMAN PRESIDENT GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTI.MORE OTTO HILGARD TITTMANN SUPERINTENDENT UNITED STATES COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY GEORGE BURBANK SHATTUCK DIRECTOR BAHAMA EXPEDITION On June 2(;, 1903, Dr. 0. L. Fassig found l)y spirit levels that Bench :\Iark Xo. 1 was 10.508 feet above zero of the fixed tide staff. Bench Mark Xo. 2 is the raised horizontal line of a circular bronze tablet about 3 inches in diameter, which is cemented into the north stone wall of the Flagler Cottage, about 4 feet from the ground. This is a very old l)uilding and not likely to settle. On June 20, 1903, Bench ]\Iark Xo. 2 was found by spirit levels to be 14.108 feet above zero of the fixed tide staff'. Bench Mark Xo. 3 is the raised horizontal line of a circular bronze tablet. MAP SHOWING BAHAMA ISLANDS AND ADJA FNT LAN! MASSES THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 53 about 3 inches in diameter, which is cemented into the west stone wall of the Clifton Hotel, about 5 feet above the ground. This building is also very old and therefore quite stable. On June 26, 1903, Bench Mark N"o. 3 was found by spirit levels to be ]4.1( 8 feet above zero of the fixed tide staff, having been set at exactly the same elevation as Bench Mark Xo. 2. Mean of 707 high waters on the fixed tide staff 4.33'2 ft. Mean of 707 low " '• ' 1.698 '■ Mean half-tide level " " " " " " 3.015 •' Mean sea level " " " " " " 2.991 " Mean range of tide " " " " " *' '2.63-1 " Elevation of liencb Marks. IJ. M. 1. 15. M. 2. B. M. 3. ft. ft. ft. Above mean high water 6.176 9.776 9.776 Above mean low water s.810 12.410 12.410 Above mean half-tide level 7.493 11.093 11.093 Above mean sea level 7.517 11.117 11.117 Mean half-tide level is the mean of all the high and low waters for the year, that is, if we abbreviate to initial letters, Ave have ]\rean sea level is the mean of the hourly heights of the sea throughout tlie year, or MSL = ---'■ (//„ + /^ -4- //„ + h,, -f It.,,) in which 2'// represents the sum of all the heights throughout the series for the hour designated by the subscript. In a common year n = 24 X 365 and in a leap year » = 24 X 366. When the harmonic constants for the station are known, the approximate \alue of mean half-tide level may be computed by the formula HTL z= MSL + M, cos (2J/S — M\) — 0.04 *^^-±=^'cos {Ml — K\ — 01) Avhere HTL = mean half-tide level MSL = " sea level i/o, M\, 3L, M'l /r,, A'i', 0,, 0? are liarmonic constants defined further on. TIDES AT NASSAU. Tide Eecords. The tide record for Xassau consists of curves traced by the tide gauge, and these marigrams or tide curves were tabulated in order to obtain the hourly heights of the sea. and the times and heights of high and low waters which are given here. The time used is mean local civil for Nassau, the approximate time meridian being TT° 21' or 5h. 09m. west of (rreenwich. The heights are expressed in English feet and tenths, and are reduced to the fixed tide stafi", so that thev mav be referred to the bench marks. 54 TIDES AXD BEXCII MARKS JULY, 1903. Day of Month ..1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Hours ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. (3.8)*3.3 3.3 (2.9) 2.3 2.0 1.9 1 (3.5) 3.5 3.8 (3.4) 2.6 2.3 2.0 2 (2.9) 3.4 4.1 (3.8) 3.2 2.8 2.4 3 (2.2) 3.1 4.1 (4.1) 3.7 3.3 2.8 4 (1.7) 2.5 4.0 (4.1) 3.9 3.7 3.3 5 (1.2) 1.9 3.5 (3.7) 3.7 3.8 3.7 6 (0.9) 1.3 2.9 (3.2) 3.3 3.7 3.8 7 0.9 0.9 2.2 (2.7) 2.8 3.3 3.5 8 1.1 (1.1) 1.7 2.2 2.2 2.8 3.1 9 1.6 1.9 1.8 1.7 (1.7) 2.2 2.6 10 2.3 2.5 2.1 1.7 1.6 1.8 2.1 11 3.1 3.1 2.6 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.7 Noon 3.6 3.8 3.2 2.3 2.1 1.8 1.7 13 3.8 4.3 3.9 3.0 2.7 2.2 2.0 14 3.6 4.5 (4.5) 3.7 3.4 2.8 2.4 15 3.2 4.4 (4.6) 4.3 4.1 3.5 3.1 16 2.6 4.0 (4.5) 4.6 4.6 4.1 3.8 17 2.0 3.5 (3.9) 4.4 4.7 4.6 4.4 18 1.5 2.9 (3.4) 4.0 4.5 4.6 4.7 19 1.2 2.4 (2.9) 3.5 3.9 4.3 4.6 20 1.2 2.1 (2.4) 2.9 3.3 3.8 4.2 21 1.6 2.1 (2.1) 2.4 2.6 3.0 3.6 22 2.1 2.3 (2.1) 2.1 2.3 2.5 3.0 23 2.8 2.8 (2.5) 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.4 10 ft. 11 ft. 12 ft. 13 ft. 14 ft. 16 ft. 2.0 2.0 2.1 3.6 3.9 3.8 3.5 3.1 2 .5 2.0 1.7 1.8 O O 2.8 3.5 4.1 4.6 4.7 4.4 3.9 3.4 2.7 2.2 2.0 2.1 2.4 2.9 3.4 3.7 3.9 3.7 3.4 2.9 2.4 1.9 1.7 1.9 2.3 2.9 3.7 4.3 4.7 4.7 4.5 3.9 3.3 2.7 2.2 2.0 2.1 2.5 3.0 3.4 3.8 3.9 3.8 3.4 2.9 2.4 2.0 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.2 3.9 4.5 4.9 4.8 4.2 3.6 (2.9) (2.3) (2.0) (2.0) (2.3) (2.7) 3.2 3.7 4.0 3.9 3.6 3.0 2.5 2.1 1.8 1.9 2.3 2.9 3.6 4.2 4.6 4.7 4.4 3.8 3.2 2.6 2.1 2.0 2.1 2.5 3.1 3.6 3.9 4.0 3.9 3.4 2.9 2.4 2.1 2.0 2.2 2.8 3.4 3.9 4.5 4.7 4.6 4.2 3.7 3.0 2.4 2.1 2.0 2.2 2.7 3.2 3.7 4.0 4.1 3.8 3.4 2.8 2.4 2.1 2.1 2.3 2.7 3.3 3.9 4.3 4.5 4.3 3.9 3.3 2.7 o o 1.9 1.9 2.3 2.7 3.2 3.7 4.0 4.0 3.8 3.4 2.9 2.4 2.1 2.0 2.3 2.8 3.3 3.9 4.3 4.4 4.2 3.8 3.2 2.6 2.2 2.0 2.1 2.4 2.9 3.5 3.9 4.2 4.2 3.9 3.5 3.0 2.3 2.6 3.1 3.6 4.0 4.4 4.4 4.1 3.6 3.0 2.6 2.3 2.2 2.3 2.7 3.2 3.8 4.2 4.4 4.3 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.6 2.4 2.4 2.7 3.1 3.6 4.0 JULY, 1903. — Continued. Day of Month 17 18 19 20 Hours ft. ft. ft. ft. 4.2 3.9 3.6 3.2 1 4.2 4.1 3.9 3.7 2 3.8 4.0 4.1 4.1 3 3.4 3.6 3.9 4.2 4 2.8 3.1 3.6 4.0 5 2.4 2.6 3.1 3.7 6 2.1 2.2 2.5 3.1 7 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.6 8 2.2 2.0 1.9 2.1 9 2.6 2.3 1.9 ].8 10 3.2 2.7 2.3 2.0 11 3.8 3.3 2.8 2.3 Noon 4.2 3.9 3.6 3.0 13 4.4 4.3 4.2 3.8 14 4.2 4.5 4.6 4.4 15 3.9 4.4 4.8 4.9 16 3.4 4.0 4.6 5.0 17 2.9 3.5 4.1 4.8 18 2.5 3.0 3.6 4.3 19 2.3 2.6 2.9 3.6 20 2.4 2.3 2.5 2.9 21 2.6 2.3 2.3 2.4 22 3.1 2.6 2.4 2.2 23 3.6 3.1 2.7 2.2 21 ft. ft. ft. 24 25 ft. ft. 26 ft. 27 ft. 28 ft. 29 ft. 30 ft. 31 ft. 2.6 2.0 1.7 1.8 2.4 3.0 3.7 4.3 4.6 4.5 4.0 3.0 2.3 1.8 1.6 1.7 2.1 2.9 3.6 4.1 4.2 4.2 3.6 2.9 2.2 1.8 1.5 1.4 2.0 2.7 3.4 3.7 3.9 4.0 3.5 2.8 2.3 1.7 1.3 1.5 2.0 2.6 3.1 3.4 4.2 4.0 3.6 3.1 2.3 1.7 1.4 1.5 2.0 2.4 2.8 4.0 4.3 4.2 3.8 3.1 2.2 1.7 1.5 1.6 1.8 2.3 3.6 4.1 4.5 4.4 3.9 3.0 2.3 1.8 1.6 1.6 1.8 :'..o 3.6 4.2 4.6 4.5 3.8 3.2 2.4 2.0 1.6 1.6 2.4 2.9 3.6 4.4 4.8 4.4 3.9 3.2 2.6 2.0 1.7 1.8 o •> 2.9 3.8 4.5 4.7 4.5 4.0 3.4 2.6 2.0 1.6 1.6 2 2 2.9 3.8 4.3 4.7 4.6 4.1 3.3 2.7 1.7 1.3 1.5 2.1 2.9 3.7 4.4 4.7 4.6 4.0 3.4 2.1 ].5 1.2 1.4 2.0 2.8 3.8 4.5 4.7 4.5 4.0 2.9 2.0 1.5 1.2 1.4 2.0 3.0 3.8 4.4 4.4 4.4 3.8 2.9 2.0 1.5 1.1 1.4 2.2 3.1 3.8 4.2 4.4 4.5 3.8 3.0 2.1 1.4 1.2 1.6 2.3 3.2 3.7 4.2 5.1 4.7 4.0 3.0 1.9 1.6 1.4 1.8 2.4 3.0 3.6 5.2 5.3 4.8 4.0 2.8 2.1 1.6 1.6 2.0 2.5 3.1 4.8 5.3 5.4 4.9 3.8 3.0 2.2 1.9 1.8 2.0 2.5 4.3 5.0 5.4 5.4 4.8 4.0 2.9 2.4 2.1 1.9 2.2 3.5 4.3 4.9 5.5 5.3 4.8 3.9 3.1 2.5 2.1 2.1 2.7 3.5 4.2 5.0 5.3 5.2 4.6 3.9 3.1 2.4 2.2 2.2 2.6 3.3 4.2 4.8 5.1 4.9 4.5 3.8 3.0 2.6 1.9 2.0 2.4 3.3 3.9 4.6 4.9 4.7 4.3 3.6 3.1 * The values In parentheses are interpolated. THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 55 AUGUST, 1903. Day of Month . Hours . 1 ft. 2 ft. 3 ft. 4 ft. 5 ft. 6 ft. 7 ft. 8 ft. 9 ft. 10 ft. 11 ft. 12 ft. 13 ft. 14 ft. 15 ft. 16 ft. 3.5 3.8 4.0 3.8 3.4 2.8 2.3 1.9 1.7 1.8 2.2 2.7 3.4 4.0 4.5 4.5 , 4.2 , 3.8 , 3.2 . 2.7 . 2.3 , 2.1 . 2.2 . 2.5 3.0 3.5 3.8 3.9 3.7 3.3 2.8 2.3 1.9 1.8 1.9 2.3 2.8 3.5 4.1 4.4 4.5 4.1 3.7 3.1 2.6 2.1 2.0 2.1 2.5 2.9 3.3 3.7 3.7 3.5 3.2 2.7 -2.3 1.8 1.7 1.8 2.3 2.9 3.6 4.2 4.5 4.5 4.2 3.7 3.1 2.6 2.2 2.1 2.3 2.6 3.1 3.5 3.8 3.9 3.7 3.2 2.7 2.3 1.9 1.8 2.1 2.6 3.2 3.9 4.4 4.7 4.7 4.3 3.7 3.1 2.6 2.2 2.1 2.3 2.8 3.2 3.7 3.9 3.8 3.6 3.2 2.7 2.2 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.7 3.4 4.0 4.6 4.8 4.8 4.5 4.0 3.4 2.8 2.4 2.2 2.3 2.6 3.1 3.6 3.9 4.0 4.0 3.6 3.1 2.5 2.1 1.9 2.0 2.4 3.0 3.7 4.3 4.6 4.7 4.5 4.0 3.4 2.8 2.3 2.0 2.1 2.5 3.0 3.5 3.9 4.0 3.8 3.3 2.8 2.3 1.9 1.9 2.1 2.6 3.4 4.0 4.5 4.7 4.5 4.0 3.3 2.7 2.2 2.0 2.2 2.5 3.1 3.6 4.0 4.1 3.8 3.4 2.9 2.3 2.0 1.9 2.2 2.7 3.4 4.1 4.6 4.7 4.5 4.1 3.5 2.8 2.3 2.1 2.2 2.5 3.0 3.6 4.0 4.3 4.2 3.7 3.2 2.6 2.2 2.0 2.1 2.5 3.0 3.7 4.4 4.7 4.7 4.3 3.7 3.1 2.5 2.1 2.0 2.3 2.7 3.2 3.8 4.1 4.2 •3.9 3.4 2.9 2.3 2.0 1.9 2.2 2.6 3.3 3.9 4.4 4.6 4.4 3.9 3.3 2.6 2.2 1.9 2.0 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.1 4.3 4.2 3.8 3.2 2.7 2.2 2.0 2.2 2.6 3.1 3.8 4.3 4.6 4.6 4.2 3.7 3.1 2.5 2.2 2.1 2.4 3.0 3.5 4.1 4.6 4.6 4.4 3.9 3.4 2.8 2.4 2.4 2.6 3.0 3.6 4.1 4.5 4.7 4.5 4.1 3.5 2.9 2.4 2.1 2.3 2.7 3.3 3.9 4.4 4.7 4.7 4.3 3.8 3.2 2.7 2.5 2.4 2.6 3.1 3.7 4.2 4.4 4.4 4.1 3.6 2.9 2.4 2.1 2.0 2.3 2.7 3.4 3.9 4.3 4.5 4.4 3.9 3.4 2.8 2.4 2.2 2.3 2.6 3.1 3.6 4.0 4.2 4.0 3.7 3.2 2.6 2.1 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.6 3.2 3.9 4.4 4.6 4.6 4.3 3.8 3.3 2.7 2.5 2.4 2.6 3.0 3.5 3.9 4.2 1 4.3 4.0 3 4 3.5 3.0 2.5 6 2.1 7 2.1 8 2.3 9 10 2.8 3.4 11 4.1 Noon 13 4.6 4.9 14 47 15 4.4 16 3.9 17 18 19 3.3 2.8 2.5 20 2.5 21 2 7 22 3^ 23 3 6 AUGUST, 1903.— Continued. Day of Month . . . Hours ...17 ft. 18 ft. 19 ft. 20 ft. 21 ft. 22 ft. 23 ft. 24 ft. 25 ft. 26 ft. 27 ft. 28 ft. 29 ft. 30 ft. 31 ft. , . . . 4.0 3.6 4.1 4.3 4.3 4.0 3.5 2.9 2.3 2.0 1.9 2.3 2.9 3.6 4.3 4.9 5.2 5.1 4.6 4.0 3.4 2.7 2.4 2.3 2.6 3.0 3.5 4.1 4.4 4.4 4.0 3.4 2.8 2.2 1.8 1.8 2.1 2.7 3.6 4.4 5.1 5.3 5.2 4.6 4.0 3.2 2.6 2.2 2.1 2.4 2.9 3.6 4.2 4.6 4.6 4.2 3.6 2.8 2.2 1.8 1.7 2.0 2.7 3.6 4.6 5.2 5.5 5.3 4.7 3.9 3.1 2.4 2.0 1.9 2.2 2.8 3.6 4.2 4.7 4.6 4.1 3.5 2.6 1.9 1.4 1.4 1.8 2.4 3.5 4.5 5.2 5.4 5.1 4.5 3.7 2.7 2.0 1.6 1.6 2.0 2.7 3.6 4.3 4.7 4.7 4.2 3.4 2.5 1.8 1.3 1.3 1.6 2.4 3.4 4.4 5.2 5.4 5.1 4.4 3.5 2.5 1.8 1.4 1.5 2.0 2.8 3.7 4.4 4.8 4.7 4.1 3.3 2.4 1.6 1.1 1.2 1.8 2.6 3.6 4.5 5.1 5.2 4.7 4.0 3.1 2.1 1.5 1.2 1.4 1.9 2.8 3.6 4.5 4.9 4.7 4.2 3.3 2.4 1.6 1.2 1.3 1.8 2.6 3.6 4.4 4.9 5.0 4.6 3.8 2.9 2.0 1.5 1.3 1.6 2.2 3.1 4.0 4.6 4.9 4.7 4.2 3.3 2.5 1.8 1.4 1.6 2.0 2.8 3.6 4.3 4.8 4.7 4.3 3.6 2.7 2.0 1.5 1.4 1.7 2.2 3.1 3.9 4.6 4.9 4.7 4.1 3.4 2.6 1.9 1.6 1.7 2.1 2.8 3.5 4.1 4.5 4.4 3.9 3.3 2.6 1.9 1.5 1.6 1.9 2.5 3.3 4.1 4.6 4.8 4.6 4.0 3.4 2.7 2.1 1.9 2.0 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.1 4.3 4.2 3.8 3.2 2.6 2.0 1.7 1.8 2.1 2.7 3.4 4.1 4.6 4.7 4.5 4.0 3.4 2.8 2.3 2.1 2.2 2.6 3.1 3.7 4.0 4.2 4.1 3.8 3.2 2.7 2.2 1.9 2.0 2.4 2.9 3.6 4.2 4.6 4.7 4.6 4.1 3.6 3.0 2.5 2.3 2.4 2.7 3.1 3.5 3.9 4.1 4.0 3.6 3.1 2.6 2.2 2.0 2.1 2.4 2.9 3.5 4.0 4.4 4.6 4.4 4.0 3.4 2.9 2.5 2.3 2.4 2.6 3.0 34 1 , . . 4.3 3 7 o . . . 4.3 40 3 4 . . . 4.0 . . . 3.6 3.9 36 . . . 3.0 3 1 6 . . . 2.5 . . . 2.1 2.7 ?3 8 . . . 2.1 O 9 rt . . . 2.4 ? 9 10 . . . 2.9 ?5 11 . . . 3.6 3 . . . 4.2 36 13 . . . 4.7 4 ? 14 . . . 5.0 4 5 15 16 17 . . . 4.9 . . . 4.6 . . . 4.0 4.6 4.5 41 18 19 20 . . . 3.4 . . . 2.8 . . . 2.5 3.6 3.1 *> 6 21 . . . 2.4 9 4 22 23 . .. 2.6 . .. 3.1 2.5 2.7 56 TIDES AND BENCH MARKS SEPTEMBER, 1903. Day of Month . . 1 2 Hours ft. ft, 3.2 2 1 3.6 3 2 3.9 3 3 4.1 4 4 3.9 4 5 3.6 3 6 3.2 3 7 2.7 3 8 2.4 2 9 2.2 2 10 2.3 2 11 2.7 2 Noon 3.2 2 13 3.8 3 14 4.3 3 15 4.6 4 16 4.7 4 17 4.5 4 18 4.0 4. 19 3.5 3, 20 3.0 3 21 2.6 2 oo o ^ o 23 2.5 2 6 ft. ft. 10 ft. 11 ft. 12 ft. 13 ft. 14 ft. 15 ft. 16 ft. .8 2.3 2.4 2.3 2.6 2.9 3.1 3.4 2 2.6 2.6 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.8 6 3.1 2.9 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.4 2.5 3.5 3.4 3.0 2.9 2.8 2.5 (2.6) 1 3.9 3.8 3.6 3.4 3.3 2.9 (3.0) 9 4.0 4.2 4.1 4.0 3.9 3.6 (3.4) 6 3.8 4.4 4.4 4.5 4.5 4.2 (3.8) 1 (3.4) 4.1 4.5 4.7 4.9 4.8 (4.2) 7 (2.8) 3.7 4.2 4.6 5.0 5.1 4..1 3 (2.4) 3.2 3.7 4.2 4.7 5.0 4.7 2.1 2.7 3.2 3.7 4.1 4.6 4.4 1 2.0 2.3 2.7 3.1 3.5 4.0 3.9 5 2.3 2.1 2.3 2.6 2.9 3.3 3.3 2.7 2.4 2.2 2.4 2.5 2.8 2.7 6 3.3 2.8 2.5 2.5 2.4 2.5 2.2 1 3.9 3.4 3.0 2.9 2.7 2.5 2.0 4 4.4 4.1 3.7 3.5 3.2 2.9 2.1 5 4.7 4.6 4.4 4.2 3.9 3.5 2.5 3 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.9 4.6 4.1 3.2 8 4.4 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.1 4.7 3.9 2 3.9 4.3 4.8 5.1 5.2 5.0 4.5 7 3.3 3.8 4.3 4.7 4.9 5.1 4.7 3 2.8 3.2 3.7 4.2 4.4 4.7 4.6 1 2.4 2.7 3.1 3.5 3.8 4.1 4.2 3.5 4.3 (4.1 2.8 3.4 (3.6 2.3 2.7 (2.9 2.1 (2.3) (2.4 2.3 (2.1) (2.1 2.6 (2.4) (2.1 3.3 (2.9) (2.5 4.0 (3.6) (3.0 4.5 (4.3) (3.8 5.0 (4.8) (4.3 5.1 (5.1) (4.7 4.8 (5.0) (4.8 4.4 (4.5) (4.6 3.9 (3.9) (4.1 3.5 (3.2) (3.4 3.1 (2.7) (2.8 3.0 (2.4) (2.4 3.2 (2.4) (2.2 3.7 (2.7) (2.2 4.2 (3.2) (2.6 4.7 (3.9) (3.2 5.2 (4.4) (3.7 5.3 (4.6) (4.1 5.1 (4.5) (4.3 ) (4.1 )(3.7 ) (3.1 )(2.5 )(2.1 )(1.9 )(l-9 ) (2.3 ) (2.8 ) (3.4 ) (4.1 )(4.6 ) (4.7 )(4.5 )(4.1 )(3.5 )(2.8 ) (2.4 ) (2.2 ) (2.2 ) (2.4 )(2.9 )(3.4 )(3.9 (4.1) (3.9) 3.2 (4.1) (4.2) 3.7 (3.7) (4.1) 4.0 (3.2) (3.8) 3.9 (2.7) (3.3) 3.5 (2.2) (2.6) 3.1 (1.8) 1.9 2.5 (1.9) 1.6 2.0 (2.2) 1.7 l.S (2.8) 2.0 1.8 (3.4) 2.7 2.1 (4.1) 3.4 2.7 (4.5) 4.0 3.4 (4.7) 4.5 4.3 4.4 4.6 4.S 3.7 4.4 4.9 3.2 4.0 4.6 2.6 3.4 4.1 2.2 2.8 3.0 2.0 2.3 2.9 (2.0) 2.0 2 "^ (2.3) 2.0 2.0 (2.7) 2.2 2.0 (3.2) 2.7 2.3 SEPTEMBER, 1903. — <:'ontinue(3. Day of Month Hours 17 ft. 18 19 20 ft. ft. ft. 21 22 23 24 ft. ft. ft. ft. 25 ft. 26 ft. 27 ft. 28 ft. 29 ft. 30 ft. 2.9 2.3 1.8 1 3.5 2.8 2.2 2 4.0 3.6 2.9 3 4.3 4.2 3.7 4 4.1 4.6 4.4 5 3.6 4.5 4.8 6 3.0 4.1 4.9 7 2.4 3.5 4.5 8 1.9 2.S 3.7 9 1.7 2.1 3.0 10 1.8 1.7 2.1 11 2.2 1.6 1.6 Noon 2.9 2.0 1.5 13 3.6 2.5 1.8 14 4.4 3.4 2.4 15 4.9 4.3 3.3 16 5.0 5.0 4.3 17 4.8 5.3 5.0 18 4.2 5.1 5.3 19 3.5 4.6 5.1 20 2.8 3.7 4.5 21 2.1 2.9 3.7 22 1.8 2.1 2.8 23 1.9 1.8 2.1 1.7 2.3 3.0 3.4 3.8 4.0 4.0 3.8 3.5 3.3 1.5 1.7 2.3 2.7 3.2 3.6 3.8 3.9 3.8 3.6 1.7 1.0 1.9 2.1 2.5 3.1 3.4 3.7 3.9 3.8 2.3 1.8 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.6 3.0 3.3 3.7 3.9 3.1 2.4 2.2 2.0 1.8 2.1 2.5 2.9 3.3 3.7 4.1 3.3 2.9 2.5 1.9 1.9 2.1 2.4 2.9 3.3 4.8 4.2 3.7 3.4 2.3 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.6 2.9 5.1 4.9 4.5 4.1 2.9 2.3 2.1 2.1 2.3 2.6 4.9 5.3 5.2 4.8 3.6 2.9 2.5 2.3 2.3 2.3 4.3 5.2 5.5 5.1 4.3 3.6 3.1 2.6 2.5 2.2 3.5 4.6 5.2 5.2 4.8 4.3 3.7 3.1 2.8 2.4 2.6 3.7 4.6 4.8 4.9 4.6 4.2 3.7 3.3 2.8 1.9 2.8 3.7 4.1 4.6 4.6 4.5 4.1 3.7 3.3 1.4 2.1 2.0 3.3 4.0 4.3 4.5 4.3 4.2 3.8 1.5 1.7 2.2 2.5 3.3 3.8 4.1 4.3 4.4 4.2 2.0 1.8 2.0 2.0 2.6 3.2 3.6 4.0 4.4 4.4 2.8 2.2 2.1 1.9 2.2 2.7 3.1 3.5 4.1 4.3 3.8 3.0 2.6 2.1 2.9 2.3 2.6 3.0 3.6 4.0 4.5 3.8 3.4 2.5 2.1 2.1 2.3 2.6 3.1 3.5 4.9 4.6 4.1 3.2 2.4 o 2 2.2 2.3 2.7 3.0 5.1 5.0 4.8 3.8 3.0 2.6 2.3 2.2 2.5 2.6 4.7 5.0 5.0 4.3 3.5 3.0 2.7 2.4 2.4 2.4 4.0 4.6 4.8 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.7 2.6 2.3 3.1 3.9 4.2 4.3 4.2 3.9 3.5 3.1 2.9 2.5 THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 57 OCTOBER, 1903. I )ay of Month . . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Hours ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. 2.9 2.6 2.3 2.4 2.2 2.3 2.5 2.6 3.2 3.8 4.1 4.1 4.0 3.8 3.7 3.3 1 3 "^ 2.9 3.4 2.7 3.1 2.7 3.1 2.6 2.1 2.3 2 2 2.2 2.1 2.0 2.5 2.2 3.1 2.6 3.5 2.9 3.7 3.1 3.9 3.4 4.0 3.9 4.2 4.5 3 2 3.6 4.4 :i 3.9 3.8 3.7 3.7 3.2 2.9 2.5 2.2 2.1 2.2 2.4 (2.5) 2.9 3.5 4.4 4.6 4 3 9 4.0 4.0 3.7 3.3 2.8 4.1 4.3 4.2 (3.9) (3.5) 4.3 4.7 4.7 4.5 4.0 3.8 4.3 4.7 4.7 4.4 3.5 4.2 4.7 5.0 4.9 3.2 3.9 4.5 5.0 5.1 2.7 3.4 4.2 4.7 5.1 (2.3) (3.0) (3.7) 4.5 5.1 2.2 2.5 3.2 3.9 4.6 2.2 2.3 2.7 3.3 4.1 (2.1) (1.9) (2.0) 2.5 3.0 2.3 1.9 1.6 1.7 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.9 2.0 4.0 3.4 2.8 2.3 2.0 4 4 5 . 3 7 3 6 3 3 3 •'> 2.9 2.5 H 2.1 2.3 2.5 (3.0) 3.5 3.8 4.5 4.8 5.0 5.4 5.2 4.7 3.7 2.8 2.3 2.0 1.9 10 2.4 2.1 2.1 (2.6) (2.2) 2.9 2.5 3.2 2.6 3.8 3.2 4.2 3.5 4.6 4.0 5.3 4.8 5.4 5.2 5.1 5.2 4.3 4.7 3.5 4.1 3.0 3.6 2.4 3.0 1 9 11 2.4 Xoon 2.8 2.4 (2.2) 2.3 2.2 2.6 2.8 3.2 4.1 4.7 4.8 4.7 4.4 4.3 3.0 3.0 13 3.2 2.9 (2.7) 2.5 2.1 2.3 2.3 2.5 3.4 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.5 4.7 4.3 3.7 14 3.8 3.4 (3.3) 2.8 2.3 2.3 2.1 2.1 2.7 3.3 3.5 3.9 4.2 4.8 4.7 4.3 15 4.2 4.0 (3.9) 3.4 2.8 2.6 o 2 2.1 2.4 2.8 2.9 3.2 3.6 4.6 4.S 4.S 16 4.4 4.3 4.3 4.5 (4.4) (4.8) 4.0 4.5 3.4 4.0 3.2 3.9 2.7 3.3 2.4 2.9 2.4 2.6 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.2 2.5 2.1 3.0 2.4 4.1 3.5 4.6 4.0 49 17 4.0 18 3.9 4.3 4.8 4.8 4.5 4.4 4.0 3.5 3.1 2.8 2.4 2.0 2.0 2.8 3.3 4.0 19 •{.4 2.9 2..") 2.3 3.9 3.3 2.8 2.4 4.5 4.0 3.4 2.9 4.6 4.2 3.6 3.0 4.7 4.5 4.0 3.3 4.8 4.8 4.3 3.8 4.5 4.7 4.5 3.9 4.1 4.5 4.6 4.4 3.8 4.3 4.7 4.7 3.4 4.0 4.5 4.7 2.7 3.3 3.8 4.2 2.0 2.3 2.8 3.4 l.S 1.9 2.3 2.8 2.4 2.1 2.3 2.6 2.6 2.1 2.0 2.1 3 .3 20 " 6 21 '> 1 •12 1.9 23 2.3 2.2 2.5 2.5 2.7 3.1 3.3 3.8 4.4 4.6 4.4 3.8 3.4 3.1 2.6 2.0 OCTOBER, 1903. — Continued. Day of Month . . . Hours . .. 17 ft. 18 ft. 19 ft. 20 ft. 21 ft. 22 ft. 23 ft. 24 ft. 25 ft. 26 ft. 27 ft. 28 ft. 29 ft. 30 ft. 31 ft. . . . (2.4) (2.0) 1.6 1.7 (2.0) (2.8) 1.8 1.6 (1.6) (3.7) 2.4 2.0 (1.7) (4.5) 3.2 2.6 (2.2) (5.0) 4.1 (3.4) (3.0) (5.1) (5.0) (4.4) (4.0) (4.9) (5.2) (5.2) (4.8) (4.4) 5.1 (5.3) (5.3) 3.5 4.5 (5.0) (5.4) 2.6 3.7 4.5 (5.0) 2.0 2.9 3.6 4.4 1.7 2.0 2.7 3.7 1.7 I.e. 2.1 2.7 2.0 1.7 1.7 2.1 2.7 2.1 1.8 1.8 3.5 2.7 2.3 2.0 4.3 3.5 3.1 2.5 4.7 4.3 3.9 3.2 4.5 4.S 4.5 3.9 4.4 4.9 4.9 4.5 3.7 4.4 4.S 4.7 3.0 3.7 (4.1) 4.7 2.2 2.9 (3.4) 4.0 1.6 2.1 (2.7) 3.3 2.6 1.9 1.7 1.9 2.3 3.1 4.0 4.7 5.2 5.2 4.8 4.1 3.3 2.0 l.S 2.1 2.6 3.3 3.9 4.4 4.5 4.3 3.7 3.0 2.4 1.9 1.8 2.1 2.6 3.5 4.3 4.9 5.2 5.1 4.6 4.0 3.2 2.1 2.0 2.7 3.4 3.9 4.2 4.3 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.4 2.0 1.9 2.2 2.8 3.5 4.1 4.7 5.0 4.8 4.4 3.7 3.0 2.5 2.1 2.0 2.7 3.3 3.7 4.0 4.0 3.6 3.2 2.6 2.1 1.9 1.9 2.2 2.7 3.3 4.0 4.4 4.5 4.3 3.8 3.1 2.6 2.1 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.7 3.1 3.5 3.7 3.6 3.3 2.8 2.3 2.1 1.9 2.0 2.4 2.9 3.4 3.9 4.3 4.3 4.0 3.4 2.9 2 .5 2.0 2.1 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.5 3.6 3.5 3.2 2.8 2.4 2.1 2.0 2.1 2.9 3.4 3.8 4.0 4.0 3.7 3.3 2.9 2.5 2.3 2.0 2 2 2. .5 2.9 3.3 3.5 3.7 3.6 3.3 2.9 2.5 2.3 2.6 3.0 3.5 3.9 4.1 4.1 3.8 3.4 3.0 2.7 2.3 2.3 2.5 2.7 3.1 3.5 3.7 3.8 3.7 3.4 3.0 2.7 2.4 2.3 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.5 3.8 4.0 4.0 3.8 3.4 2.9 2.5 2.2 2.1 2.3 2.6 3.0 3.4 3.7 3.8 3.7 3.1 2.6 2.3 2.3 2.6 3.0 3.4 3.8 4.0 4.0 3.7 3.2 2.7 2.4 2.1 2.0 2.2 2,6 1 . . . (3.3) 3.1 . . . (4.3) 3 6 3 . . . (4.8) 3 9 4 . (50) 3 9 ~> 6 . . . (4.8) . . . (4.3) 3.S 3 4 . . . 3.6 •^ 9 8 . . . 2.8 ? r, 9 o o 10 11 . . . 1.9 . . . l.S 2.1 2..") 13 . . . 2.8 3 14 . . . 3.5 3 4 15 16 17 . . . 4.3 . . . 4.8 . . . 4.9 3.!l 4.0 3!) IS . . . 4.6 3 5 19 . . . 4.4 3 20 21 . . . 3.3 . . . 2.4 2.4 2.0 • >.i . . . 1.9 1 S 23 . .. 1.7 1.8 58 TIDES AND BENCH MARKS NOVEMBER, 1903. Day of Month . Hours . 1 ft. 2 ft. 3 ft. 4 ft. 5 ft. 6 ft. 7 ft. 8 ft. 9 ft. 10 ft. 11 ft. 12 ft. 13 ft. 14 ft. 15 ft. 16 ft. 2.2 2.6 3.1 3.6 3.9 3.9 3.6 3.1 2.6 2.1 1.9 1.8 2.0 2.4 , 3.0 3.4 . 3.8 . 4.0 , 3.8 , 3.3 , 2.7 2.2 . 1.8 . 1.6 1.9 2.3 2.9 3.5 4.0 4.3 4.1 3.8 3.2 2.6 2.1 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.2 3.7 4.0 4.0 3.6 3.1 2.5 2.0 1.6 1.6 1.9 2.5 3.1 3.8 4.2 4.4 4.2 3.6 3.0 2.4 1.9 1.6 1.7 2.1 2.7 3.3 3.8 4.0 3.9 3.5 2.8 2.2 1.7 1.5 1.6 2.1 2.8 3.6 4.3 4.7 4.7 4.3 3.7 2.9 2.3 1.9 1.7 2.0 2.5 3.1 3.8 4.2 4.3 4.0 3.4 2.8 2.1 1.7 1.6 1.9 2.5 3.3 4.1 4.8 5.0 4.8 4.3 3.6 2.8 2.1 1.7 1.7 2.1 2.7 3.3 3.9 4.2 4.2 3.7 3.1 2.4 (1.8) (1.5) (1.5) (2.0) (2.8) (3.5) (4.3) (4.8) (5.0) (4.7) (3.9) (3.0) (2.2) (1.8) 1.7 1.8 2.2 2.8 3.5 4.0 4.3 4.1 3.7 3.0 2.2 1.6 1.5 1.6 2.1 2.9 3.8 4.5 4.9 5.0 4.7 4.0 3.2 2.4 1.8 1.5 1.6 2.0 2.6 3.3 3.8 4.0 8.8 3.3 2.6 1.9 1.5 1.3 l.C 2.1 2.9 3.7 4.4 4.8 4.8 4.4 3.7 2.8 2.0 1.6 1.5 1.6 2.0 2.7 3.2 3.7 3.9 3.7 3.2 2.5 2.0 1.6 1.5 1.6 2 2 3.0 3.8 4.4 4.8 4.8 4.3 3.6 2.8 2.1 1.7 1.6 1.7 2.2 2.8 3.4 3.8 4.0 3.8 3.3 2.6 2.0 1.6 1.6 1.7 2.9 3.7 4.3 4.7 4.6 4.2 3.5 2.8 2.2 1.8 1.7 1.9 2.3 2.8 3.4 3.8 4.0 3.8 3.3 2.7 2.1 1.8 1.6 1.9 2.3 2.9 3.6 4.3 4.6 4.5 4.0 3.4 2.8 1.8 1.6 1.8 2.8 3.4 3.8 4.0 3.9 3.3 2.8 2.2 1.8 1.7 l.S 2.8 3.4 4.0 4.3 4.3 4.0 3.4 2.8 2.1 1.7 1.5 1.7 2.1 2.8 3.4 3.9 4.1 4.0 3.6 2.9 2.4 1.9 1.7 1.8 2.1 2.7 3.3 3.9 4.2 4.3 3.9 3.3 2.7 2.1 1.6 1.5 1.7 2.2 2.8 3.5 4.0 4.3 4.2 3.8 3.2 2.6 2.0 1.8 1.8 2.1 2.6 3.3 3.8 4.2 4.2 3.9 3.3 2.6 1.9 1.6 1.4 1.7 2.2 3.0 3.7 4.3 4.6 4.5 3.9 3.3 2.6 2.0 1.7 1.7 2.0 2.6 3.3 3.9 4.3 4.2 3.8 3.2 2.5 1.8 1.5 1.4 1 7 1 ?,?i 3 3 38 4 4 5 48 6 4« 40 S 3 3 9 ? 6 10 '>0 11 1 6 Noon 13 1.6 ? 14 ''fi 15 3 3 16 17 3.9 4 3 18 4 ■> 19 3 8 20 3 1 21 "> 5 22 23 1.7 1 5 NOVEMBER, 1903.— Continued. Day of Month 17 18 Hours ft. ft. 1.6 1.6 1 1.9 1.6 2 2.6 1.9 3 3.5 2.7 4 4.3 3.5 5 4.9 4.3 6 5.0 (4.8) 7 4.8 5.0 8 4.3 4.7 9 3.4 4.0 10 2.6 3.3 11 2.0 2.4 Noon 1.7 1.8 13 1.8 1.6 14 2.2 1.7 15 2.8 2.1 16 3.5 2.8 17 4.0 3.4 18 4.4 3.9 19 4.2 4.1 20 3.7 4.0 21 3.1 3.4 22 2.4 2.8 23 1.8 2.0 19 ft. 20 21 ft. ft. 22 ft. 23 ft. 24 25 ft. ft. 26 ft. ft. 28 ft. 29 ft. 30 ft. 1.6 2.1 2.4 2.8 3.4 3.6 3.6 3.7 3.7 3.2 3.1 2.6 1.4 1.7 1.9 2.3 2.8 3.2 3.4 3.7 3.9 3.6 3.6 3.2 1.6 1.6 1.6 2.0 2.3 2.7 3.0 3.4 3.8 3.8 4.0 3.8 2.1 1.8 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.3 2.5 3.0 3.6 3.8 4.2 4.1 2.9 2.4 2.0 1.9 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.7 3.1 3.5 4.0 4.2 3.8 3.1 2.6 2.3 2.1 2.0 2.0 2.3 2.7 3.1 3.7 4.0 4.6 4.0 3.3 2.9 2.6 2.3 2.1 2.2 2.5 2.6 3.2 3.6 5.0 4.6 4.0 3.5 3.2 2.7 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.8 3.1 5.0 4.9 4.5 4.2 3.8 3.2 2.7 2.5 2.3 2.2 2.4 2.5 4.6 4.8 4.7 4.6 4.3 3.7 3.3 2.9 2.5 2.2 2.2 2.2 3.9 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.6 4.2 3.7 3.4 2.9 2.5 2.3 2.0 3.1 3.7 3.9 4.4 4.6 4.4 4.1 3.9 3.3 2.9 2.5 2.2 2.4 2.9 3.2 3.9 4.2 4.3 4.2 4.2 3.7 3.3 3.0 2.5 1.8 2.2 2.5 3.2 3.5 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.0 3.7 3.5 3.0 1.7 1.9 2.0 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.5 3.9 4.0 3.9 3.8 3.5 1.9 1.8 1.7 2.0 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.5 3.7 3.9 4.0 3.8 2.4 2.0 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 3.0 3.3 3.7 3.9 4.0 3.0 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.6 3.9 3.6 3.0 2,9 2.3 2.2 2.0 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 3.0 3.4 4.0 3.5 3.1 2.8 2.5 2.2 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.5 2.9 4.1 3.8 3.5 3.3 2.9 2.5 2.3 2.2 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.4 3.8 3.9 3.9 3.7 3.3 2.9 2.7 2.5 2.0 2.0 1.8 2.0 3.3 3.6. 3.8 3.9 3.7 3.3 3.1 2.9 2.3 2.2 1.9 1.7 2.6 3.0 3.4 3.7 3.8 3.5 3.5 3.3 2.8 2.6 2.1 1.8 GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XI BAHAMA FOSSILS THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 59 DECEMBER, 1903. Day of Month . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Hours ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. 2.1 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.6 2.3 (3.1) 3.7 (4.2) 4.0 3.4 2.9 (2.0) 1.7 (1.3) 1 2.8 2.1 1.7 1.2 1.0 1.1 1.6 (2.3) 3.1 (3.9) 4.2 3.9 3.6 (2.8) 2.4 (1.7) 2 3.5 2.8 2.3 1.6 1.1 0.9 1.2 <1.8) 2.4 (3.1) 3.9 4.1 4.2 (3.7) 3.2 (2.7) 3 . . . . 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.4 1.0 1.1 1.0 (1.3) 1.8 (2.4) 3.4 4.0 4.4 (4.4) 3.8 (3.5) 4 4.4 4.2 3.9 3.3 2.5 1.7 1.3 (1.2) 1.5 (1.9) (2.7) 3.6 4.1 (4.5) 4.4 (4.1) 5 4.5 4.6 4.5 4.2 3.5 2.6 2.0 (1.6) 1.5 (1.5) (2.0) 2.9 3.7 (4.3) 4.5 (4.6) 6 4.1 4.5 4.7 4.7 4.2 3.6 2.9 (2.5) 1.8 (1.5) (1.5) 2.3 2.9 (3.8) 4.2 (4.6) 7 .... 3.7 4.2 4.7 5.0 4.8 4.4 3.9 3.2 2.4 1.9 1.6 1.9 2.3 (3.0) 3.7 (4.4) 8 3.1 3.5 4.2 4.7 5.0 4.9 4.7 4.0 3.3 2.4 1.8 1.7 1.8 (2.3) 3.0 (3.8) 9 2.5 2.9 3.5 4.1 4.7 4.8 5.1 4.7 4.1 3.1 2 3 1.8 1.6 (1.8) 2.3 (3.1) 10 2.0 2.3 2.6 3.3 3.9 4.4 (4.9) 5.0 4.6 3.8 2.9 2.2 1.7 (1.6) 1.8 (2.4) 11 1.0 1.8 2.0 2.4 3.0 3.5 (4.3) 4.8 4.9 4.4 3.5 2.7 2.0 (1.7) 1.6 (1.7) Noon . . 2.0 1.7 1.6 1.7 2.1 2.6 (3.4) 4.1 4.8 4.6 4.0 3.3 2.5 (2.2) 1.7 1.6 13 2.3 1.9 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.9 (2.6) 3.3 4.1 4.4 4.2 3.7 3.1 (2.7) 2.0 1.7 14 2.8 2.3 1.7 1.5 1.2 1.3 (1.9) 2.4 3.4 3.8 3.9 4.0 3.6 (3.3) 2.5 2.0 15 3.3 2.9 2.2 1.8 1.2 1.1 (1.4) 1.7 2.6 3.1 3.4 3.9 3.9 (3.7) 3.1 2.6 16 3.7 3.5 2.9 2.4 1.7 1.1 (1.2) 1.4 1.9 2.4 2.8 3.5 3.8 (3.9) 3.6 3.2 17 3.9 3.9 3.5 3.1 2.3 1.8 (1.5) 1.3 1.6 1.7 2.4 3.0 3.4 3.7 3.9 3.7 18 3.7 4.0 3.8 3.7 3.1 2.5 (2.2) 1.7 1.5 1.4 1.6 2.4 2.8 3.3 3.7 3.9 19 3.2 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.7 3.2 (2.7) 2.2 1.8 1.3 1.3 1.8 2.1 2.6 3.4 3.6 20 2.6 3.1 3.5 3.9 4.0 3.8 (3.4) 2.9 (2.3) 1.6 1.3 1.5 1.6 2.0 2.8 3.1 21 2.0 2.5 2.9 3.3 3.7 4.0 (4.0) 3.6 (3.0) 2.1 1.6 1.3 1.3 1.5 2.0 2 5 22 1.6 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.1 3.8 (4.1) 4.0 (3.6) 2.8 2.0 1.6 1.2 1.3 1.6 1.9 23 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.9 2.3 3.0 (3.8) 4.1 (4.1) 3.5 2.7 2.2 (1.4) 1.3 (1.2) 1.5 DECEMBER, 1903.— Continued. Day of Month 17 18 19 20 Hours ft. ft. ft. ft. 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.8 1 1.0 1.3 1.3 1.5 2 2.1 1.6 1.3 1.3 3 2.0 2.1 1.7 (1.5) 4 3.7 2.9 2.4 (2.0) 5 4.4 3.7 3.1 (2.7) 6 4.7 4.4 3.9 (3.4) 7 4.7 4.7 4.4 4.0 8 4.2 4.6 4.6 4.4 9 3.5 4.0 4.4 4.4 10 2.8 3.2 3.7 4.0 11 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.4 Noon 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.0 13 1.5 1.5 1.6 2.0 14 1.7 1.4 1.4 1.5 15 2.0 1.7 1.4 1.4 16 2.7 (2.3) 1.8 1.6 17 3.3 (2.9) 2.3 2.0 18 3.7 3.4 2.8 2.5 19 3.8 3.7 3.2 3.0 20 3.5 3.7 3.5 3.4 21 3.0 3.3 3.4 3.6 22 2.3 2.7 3.0 3.3 23 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 21 22 23 ft. ft. ft. 24 ft. ft. 26 ft. 27 ft. 28 29 30 ft. ft. ft. 31 ft. 1.6 2.3 3.0 3.7 4.1 4.3 4.1 3.5 2.9 2.3 1.7 1.5 1.6 1.8 2.3 2.8 3.2 3.5 3.3 2.S 2.1 1.6 1.2 1.0 2.2 2.7 3.2 1.6 2.1 2.7 1.3 1.7 2 2 1.2 1.5 1.8 1.6 1.5 1.7 2.1 1.8 1.9 2.8 2.4 2.2 3.5 3.0 2.7 4.0 3.6 3.2 4.3 4.1 3.7 4.2 4.3 4.1 3.7 4.1 4.1 3.1 3.5 3.8 2.4 2.8 3.2 1.7 2.1 2.5 1.4 1.6 1.9 1.4 1.4 1.0 1.0 1.6 1.6 2.0 1.9 1.7 2.6 2.4 2.0 3.0 2.9 2.5 3.4 3.3 2.9 3.4 3.6 3.3 3.2 3.5 3.5 (3.4) 3.6) (3.1) 3.3) (2.7) 3.0) (2.2) 2.6) (2.0) 2.3) (1.9) 2.0) (2.1) 2.1) (2.5) 2.3) (3.0) 2.7) (3.5) 3.1) (3.9) 3.6) (4.1) 3.9) (3.9) 4.0) (3.5) .3.8) (3.0) 3.3) (2.5) 2.8) (2.1) 2.4) (1.8) 2.0) (1.8) 1.9) (2.1) 1.9) (2.6) 2.2) (3.0) 2.6) (3.4) .3.1) (3.6) 3.5) (3.7) (3.7) (3.4) (3.0) (2.5) (2.1) (2.0) (2.1) (2.3) (2.7) (3.1) (3.4) (3.7) 3.8 3.5 3.1 2.7 o .'> 1.9 1.7 1.9 2.3 2.7 3.1 3.4 3.6 3.5 .3.2 2.8 2.4 2.1 1.9 2.0 •2.2 2.5 2.9 3.3 3.5 3.5 (3 3.1 (3 2.8 (3 1.9 1.6 1.6 1.7 2.2 2.7 2.8 3.3 3.6 3.8 3.7 3.4 2.9 2.4 2.0 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.4 3.4 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.6 1,4 1.4 1.7 2.3 2.9 3.5 4.0 4.1 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.4 2.0 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.9 3.3 3.5 3.4 3.0 2.4 1.7 1.4 1.2 1.2 60 TIDES AND BENCH MARKS JANUARY, 1904. Day of Month . Hours . 1 ft. ft. 3 ft. 4 ft. 5 ft. ft. ft. 8 ft. 9 ft. 10 ft. 11 ft. 12 ft. 13 ft. 14 ft. 15 ft. 16 ft. 1.0 1.6 2.3 3 2 0.9 1.1 1.7 2.7 3.6 4.4 4.8 4.8 4.4 3.7 2.8 2.0 1.5 1.3 1.5 1.9 2.7 3.4 3.8 3.9 3.5 2.9 2.1 1.5 1.1 0.9 1.1 1.9 2.9 3.9 4.6 5.0 4.9 4.4 3.5 2.6 1.7 1.4 1.2 1.5 2.1 2.9 3.6 4.1 4.1 3.7 3.0 2.1 1.5 1.1 0.9 1.2 2.1 3.1 4.1 4.S 5.1 5.0 4.8 3.5 1.6 1.3 1.1 1.5 2.1 2.8 3.5 3.9 3.9 3.5 2.7 2.0 1.4 0.9 0.9 1.3 2.1 3.0 3.9 4.7 5.0 4.9 4.2 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.4 2.0 2.7 3.4 3.9 3.9 3.5 2.9 2.0 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.5 2.3 3.1 3.9 4.5 4.8 4.4 2.8 2.0 1.3 1.0 1.0 1.5 2.1 2.9 3.6 4.0 4.0 3.5 2.8 2.1 1.5 1.1 1.2 1.6 3.0 3.8 4.4 4.6 4.2 3.5 2.8 2.0 1.5 1.2 1.3 1.7 2.4 3.9 4.3 4.3 3.9 3.3 2.6 1.9 1.6 1.6 2.0 3.3 3.9 4.4 4.5 4.1 3.4 2.7 2.0 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.9 o - 3.3 3.9 4.3 4.3 3.8 2.. 5 1.9 1.6 1.7 1.9 3.1 3.7 4.1 4.1 3.8 3.2 2.6 2.0 1.4 1.3 1.4 1.9 3.2 3.8 4.1 4.1 :!.s 3.1 2.5 1.9 1.6 1.6 1.8 2 2 2.8 3.3 3.6 3.7 3.4 3.0 1.6 1.2 1.0 1.2 1.7 2.4 3.1 3.7 4.1 4.1 3.8 3.2 2.6 2.0 1.7 1.6 1.8 2.7 3.2 3.6 .3.7 3.4 3.0 2.4 1.8 1.4 1.2 1.4 1.9 2.6 3.3 3.9 4.2 4.2 3.9 2.7 2.1 1.7 1.6 1.7 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.5 3.6 3.4 2.9 2.3 1.7 1.3 1.2 1.4 2.0 2.7 3.4 4.0 4.3 4.3 3.9 3.3 2.7 2.1 1.7 1.5 1.7 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.5 3.6 3.3 2.8 o o 1.7 1.3 1.3 1.6 2.1 2.9 3.6 4.1 4.:! 4.2 3.8 O O 2.6 2.0 \.C, 1.5 1.6 2.0 2.6 3.0 3.4 3.3 3.0 2.5 1.9 1.4 1.1 1.1 1.5 2.0 3.4 4.0 4.1 4.0 3.4 2.8 2.1 1.5 1.2 1.2 1.5 2.0 3.0 3.3 3.2 2.8 2.3 1.6 1.2 09 1 1 1 O 1 6 3 4 3 9 3 4.3 4.4 4.1 3.5 3 7 fi 4 '' 4 3 S 4 1 2.8 2.0 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.9 2.4 3 1 3 16 '^ 4 17 3.6 3.8 3 4 o r, 18 19 3.3 3.5 20 2.9 2.1 1.5 1.1 3 3 21 2 9 22 23 2.3 1.7 JANUARY, 1904.- — Continued. Day of Month . Hours . 17 ft. 18 ft. 19 ft. 20 ft. 21 ft. ft. 23 ft. 24 ft. ft. 26 ft. 27 ft. 28 ft. 29 ft. 30 ft. 31 ft. 1 1.2 1.1 1 3 1.7 1.3 1.3 1.7 2.3 2.9 3.7 4.2 4.4 4.3 3.7 3.0 2.3 1.7 1.3 1.3 1.7 2..S 3.3 3.5 3.4 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.3 1.4 1.9 2.6 3.3 3.8 4.2 4.3 4.0 3.5 2.9 1.7 1.5 1.6 1.9 2.4 2.9 3.3 3.4 3.3 2.9 2.3 1.8 1.4 1.2 1.3 1.8 2.4 3.0 3.5 3.8 3.8 3.4 2.9 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.6 2.0 2 .5 3.0 3.3 3.4 3.2 2.7 2.2 1.7 1.5 1.5 1.8 2.3 2.9 3.5 4.0 4.2 3.9 3.4 2.7 2.0 1.7 1.6 1.7 2.1 2.5 3.0 3.5 3.8 3.7 3.4 2.9 2.4 1.9 1.8 1.8 o o 2.7 3.3 3.7 4.0 4.0 3.6 2.9 2.4 1.9 1.7 1.6 1.7 2.8 3.3 3.6 3.7 3.5 3.1 2.7 1.9 1.8 2.0 2.3 2.9 3.4 3.7 3.9 3.7 3.3 2.7 1.8 1.5 1.6 1.9 2.4 2.8 3.3 3.7 3.7 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.8 1.7 1.9 2.3 :'..(! 3.6 3.3 2.8 1.8 1.5 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.. 5 3.0 3.4 3.7 3.7 3.4 3.0 o -J 2.0 1.9 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.8 .3.3 3.5 3.5 3.2 2.7 2.3 1.8 1.5 1.4 1.5 1.9 2.5 3.0 3.5 3.7 3.7 3.4 3.0 o - 2.1 1.8 1.7 1.9 2.3 2.7 :'..l 3.4 3.3 3.0 2.6 2.1 1.8 1.5 1.4 1.6 2.1 2.7 8.3 3.8 4.0 3.9 3.5 3.1 2.6 2.2 1.9 1.9 2.1 2.5 2.9 3.2 3.4 3.4 3.1 2.7 1.7 1.4 1.4 1.7 2.2 2.8 3.4 3.9 4.1 4.1 3.8 3.2 (2.6) (2.1) (1.8) (1.7) (2.0) (2.4) (2.9) (3.3) (3.5) (3.6) (3.5) 2.7 2.1 1.6 1.3 1.3 1.6 2.1 2.9 3.6 4.1 4.4 4.3 3.9 3.2 2.6 2.1 1.7 1.6 1.9 2.3 2.8 3.3 3.6 3.6 3.3 2.7 2.0 1.4 1.5 1.1 1.5 2.1 2.9 3.7 4.3 4.6 4.5 4.0 :',.3 1.8 1.4 1.4 1.8 2.3 2.9 3.5 3.8 3.7 3.3 2.6 1.8 1.2 0.8 0.8 1 3 -1 3 4 1.8 3 3 2.9 39 4 6 6 3 9 5 7 S 9 4.3 4.3 3 9 4.7 4.1 3 3 10 3 2 '^ 4 11 2.5 1.8 1.4 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.6 3 '^ 1 7 Noon 13 14 1.4 1.4 1 7 15 ?, 4 16 3 1 17 3 8 18 4.2 19 3.5 4 1 20 3.6 3.3 2.8 2.2 3 6 21 ?9 oo '> 23 1.4 THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 61 FEBRUARY, 1904. Day of Month .1 2 3 Hoiu-s ft. ft. ft. (I 0.9 1 1.0 2 1..-) ■.i 2.2 1 4 3.2 2 5 4.2 3 4.9 4 7 ."i.2 4 S 4.9 4 9 4.1 4 10 :i.l 3 U 2.1 2 Noon 1.:! 1 13 0.9 1 14 1.0 0.7 1.-. 1.4 (O.'.h K; 2.1 (1.41 17 2.9 (2.3) 15 3.6 (3.2) 19 4.1 (3.9) 20 4.0 (4.3) 21 3.4 (4.H 22 2.6 (3. fi) 23 1.7 (2.7) 4 ft. ft. 6 ft. ft. ft. 9 ft. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. (1.7) (1.0) (0.6) (0.8) (1.3) (2.2) (3.2) 4.0 4.0 4.8 4..-. l.S 1.0 o.s 1.0 1..*. 2.4 3.3 4.0 4.3 4.2 3..-) 1.8 1.1 0.7 O.S 1.4 2.2 3.1 4.0 4..-. 4..-. 4.0 1.4 O.S 0.6 0.9 1..") 2 2 3.1 3.7 4.0 3.9 3.3 2.6 1.8 1.1 O.S 0.!) 1.4 2.1 3.0 3.7 4.1 4.1 3.6 2.S 2.0 1.2 0.7 0.7 1.0 l. 1.8 1.3 1.0 l.l 1.1 2 2 2.9 3..") 3.S l.S 1.2 O.S O.S 1.1 1.7 3.2 3.8 4.0 3.0 2.0 1..". 1.3 1.4 1.8 3.8 4.0 3.7 2.7 2.1 1.6 1.4 1..". 1.8 3.4 3.8 4.0 3.8 3.4 2.8 2 '^ l.S i.t; 1.6 l.S 3.4 2.S 2. 1.9 1.4 1.1 1.1 1.4 1.9 2.6 3.3 :!.4 3.3 .•'..0 1.9 1..- 1.2 1.2 1.6 2.1 J. I 3.1 3.3 3.2 2.9 2.8 3.4 3.9 4.0 3.9 3.5 2.9 2.4 1.0 l.ti 1.6 1.9 2.3 2.8 3.2 3.4 3.4 3.1 2.7 1.8 2.4 3.0 (2.3) (3.1) (3.7) (4.0) (4.2) (4.0) (3.5) 4.1 3.0 3.6 4.1 4.2 2.0 1.6 2.2 1.3 (1.7) 1.3 (1.4) 1.6 (1.5) 2.2 (1.8) 2.4 1.9 1.7 1.7 1.9 2.3 2.7 3.1 3.4 3.3 3.0 2.1 1.7 1.5 1.5 3.1 2.5 2.0 l.S 1.8 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.6 3.5 3.2 2.7 O ') 1.7 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.6 3.2 3.8 4.2 4.3 4.0 3.5 2.8 1.8 1.6 1.7 2.0 o -, 3.0 3.4 3.5 3.3 2.9 2.3 1.8 1.4 1.2 1.4 1.9 2.5 3.2 3.7 4.1 4.1 3.6 3.0 2.4 1.7 1.4 1.4 (1.6) (2.1) (2.7) (3.2) (3.6) (3.6) (3.3) (2.9) (2.3) (1.8) (1.3) (1.2) (1.4) (2.0) (2.8) (3.6) (4.0) (4.2) (4.0) (3.5) (3.0) (2.3) 1.8 1.6 1.7 1.9 (2.6) (3.1) (3.6) (3.9) (3.8) (3.4) (2.8) (2.2) (1.6) (1.3) (1.4) (1.7) (2.5) (3.2) (3.8) (4.2) (4.3) (3.9) (3.3) (2.7) (2.1) (1.6) (1.5) (1.6) (2.0) 2.6 3.3 ' 3.8 4.0 3.7 3.2 2.6 FEBRUARY. 1904. — Continued. Day of Month Uours 17 18 19 ft. ft. ft. 20 21 22 23 ft. ft. ft. ft. 24 ft. 25 ft. 26 ft. 27 ft. 28 ft. 29 it. 2.0 2.2 2.5 3.1 3.5 3.8 3.9 1 1.6 1.7 1.9 2.5 3.0 :;.5 3.6 2 1.4 1.3 1.5 2.0 2.4 3.0 3.2 3 * . . . 1.6 1..", 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.5 2.6 4 2.0 1.7 1.4 1.6 1.7 2.0 2.1 5 2.7 2.2 1.9 1.9 l.S l.S 1.7 6 :;.4 2.9 2.5 2.4 2.1 1.8 1.0 7 4.0 3.5 3.1 3.0 2.5 2.1 1.7 S 4.3 3.9 3.6 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 9 4.2 4.0 3.9 3.9 3.5 3.0 2.5 10 3.7 3.7 3.8 4.0 3.8 3.5 2.9 11 3.0 3.1 3.4 3.8 3.7 3.6 3.3 Noon 2.4 2.5 2.S 3.3 3.3 3.5 3.4 13 ". 1.7 l.S 1^.2 2.7 2.8 3.2 3.2 14 1.4 1.4 1.7 2.0 2.3 2.7 2.8 15 1.4 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.2 2.3 10 1.7 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.8 17 2.3 1.0 1.7 1.7 1.5 1.4 1.4 IS 2.9 2.4 2.2 2.1 1.7 1.4 1.3 10 3.4 3.0 2.9 2.7 2.2 • 1.8 1.4 20 3.8 3.5 3.4 3.3 2.9 2.3 1.8 L'l 3.8 3.7 3.8 3.8 3.4 2.9 2.3 22 3.4 3.5 3.8 4.0 3.9 3.4 2.9 23 2.9 3.1 3.6 3.9 4.0 3.8 3.4 3.8 3.8 3.6 3.2 1.9 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.6 3.1 3.4 3.5 3.3 2.9 2.4 1.9 1.6 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.5 3.1 3.6 3.9 4.0 3.7 3.3 2.7 O '> 1.9 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.3 3.1 2.8 2.4 1.9 1.6 1.3 1.4 l.S 2.3 3.0 3.6 4.1 4.2 3.9 3.4 2.8 2.2 1.8 1.6 1.7 2.1 2.5 3.0 3.3 3.5 3.4 3.0 2.5 1.9 1.0 1.4 1.5 1.9 3.2 3.9 4.3 4.4 (4.2) (3.6) 2.9 2.3 1.8 I.t! l. 5 17 3 1 •IS 3 7 19 20 4.1 4.1 21 . • >o 3.7 3.1 23 2.3 MARCH. 1904.— Continued. Day of Month . . . Hours ... 17 ft. 18 ft. 19 ft. 20 ft. 21 ft. 22 ft. 23 ft. 24 ft. 25 ft. 20 ft. 27 ft. 28 ft. 29 ft. 30 ft. 31 ft. 1 . .. 1.8 . . . 1.4 (2.3) (1.7) (1.4) (1.5) (1.8) (2.5) (3.2) 3.8 4.0 3.9 3.4 2.8 2.2 1.7 1.4 1.5 1.9 2.5 3.2 3.9 4.3 4.4 4.1 3.5 2.8 2.2 1.8 1.6 1.7 2.1 2.7 3.3 3.9 4.2 4.0 3.5 2.9 2 2 1.7 1.5 1.6 2.1 2.8 3.5 4.1 4.4 4.3 3.8 3.2 2.5 2.0 1.7 1.7 2.0 2.6 3.2 3.7 4.0 3.9 3.5 2.9 2.3 1.7 1.4 1.5 1.8 2.4 3.1 3.8 4.2 4.3 4.1 3.6 2.9 2.3 1.9 1.7 (1.9) (2.2) 2.7 3.3 3.8 4.0 3.8 3.2 2.6 2.0 1.0 1.4 1.6 2.0 2.6 3.3 3.9 4.2 4.2 3.8 3.2 2.7 2.1 1.7 1.6 1.8 2.2 2.7 3.3 3.6 3.7 3.4 2.9 2.3 1.7 1.4 1.4 1.6 2.1 2.8 3.4 4.0 4.3 4.2 3.8 3.3 2.7 1.8 1.7 1.9 2.4 2.9 3.3 3.6 3.6 3.3 2.8 2.3 1.8 1.5 1.5 1.7 2.3 2.9 3.6 4.0 4.3 4.2 3.8 3.3 2.7 2.1 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.9 3.3 3.5 3.4 3.1 2.7 2.2 1.8 1.5 1.5 1.9 2.4 3.0 3.7 4.2 4.4 4.2 3.8 3.3 2.7 2.2 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.5 3.5 3.3 2.8 2.4 1.9 1.6 1.6 1.9 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.1 4.3. 4.3 3.9 3.3 2.7 2.2 1.9 1.8 1.9 2.4 2.9 3.4 3.7 3.8 3.5 3.1 2.5 2.0 1.6 1.6 1.8 2.3 2.9 3.6 4.1 4.5 4.4 4.0 3.5 2.9 2.3 1.8 1.7 2.0 2.4 2.9 3.5 4.0 4.1 3.9 3.4 2.8 2.1 1.7 1.6 1.9 2.4 3.1 3.8 4.4 4.8 4.8 4.4 3.7 2.9 2.2 1.8 1.7 2.0 2.5 3.2 3.9 4.4 4.5 4.2 3.6 2.8 2.1 1.6 1.5 1.7 2.2 2.9 3.8 4.4 4.8 4.8 4.3 3.5 2.6 1.9 1.4 1.4 1.8 2.6 3.3 4.1 4.8 5.0 4.6 3.8 3.0 2.2 1.6 1.3 1.6 2.1 2.8 3.7 4.5 4.9 4.7 4.1 3.2 2.3 1.6 1.1 1.1 1.6 2.3 3.2 4.1 4.7 4.9 4.4 3.7 2.8 1.9 1.2 10 . . . 1.4 1 3 ■^ . . . 1.7 2 4 . . . 2.2 2 7 5 . . . 2.9 .-{ 7 6 . . . 3.5 4 3 7 8 . . . 3.9 . . . 4.0 4.7 4 5 9 10 . . . 3.7 . . . 3.1 3.7 ? 8 11 . . . 2.4 1 9 . . . 1.8 1 1 13 14 . . . 1.4 . . . 1.3 0.8 9 15 . . . 1.6 1 4 16 . . . 2.1 •>•> 17 . . . 2.7 3 ? 18 . . . 3.4 4 1 19 ... . 3 9 4 7 20 . . . 4.0 4 S 21 . . . (3.8) 4 3 oo . . . (3.4) 3.5 23 . . . (2.9) 2.5 THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 63 APRIL, 1904. Day of Month . Hours . 1 ft. 2 ft. 3 ft. 4 ft. 5 ft. 6 ft. 7 ft. 8 ft. 9 ft. 10 ft. 11 ft. 12 ft. 13 ft. 14 ft. 15 ft. 16 ft. 1.6 1.1 0.9 1.2 1.8 2.7 3.6 4.3 4.5 4.2 3.4 2.5 1.6 1.0 , 0.8 1.0 , 1.6 . 2.5 , 3.5 . 4.4 , 4.9 . 4.8 . 4.3 . 3.4 2.5 1.7 1.2 1.1 1.4 2.0 2.8 3.5 4.1 4.2 3.8 3.0 2.2 1.4 1.0 0.8 1.1 1.8 2.7 3.7 4.4 4.8 4.6 4.1 3.2 2.3 1.6 1.2 1.1 1.4 2.0 2.8 3.5 4.0 4.0 3.5 2.9 2.1 1.5 1.1 1.0 1.4 2.0 2.9 3.7 4.4 4.7 4.4 3.8 3.0 2.3 1.6 1.3 1.3 1.7 2.3 3.0 3.6 3.8 3.8 3.3 2.7 2.0 1.5 1.3 1.4 1.8 2.3 3.0 3.7 4.2 4.4 4.2 3.7 3.0 2.4 1.8 1.6 1.6 1.9 2.4 2.9 3.4 3.7 3.6 3.1 2.6 2.0 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.8 2.4 3.1 3.7 4.1 4.2 3.9 3.4 2.9 2.3 1.9 1.6 1.7 2.0 2.0 2.9 3.3 3.5 3.4 3.1 2.6 2.1 1.8 1.6 1.7 2.1 2.7 3.3 2.8 4.1 4.2 3.9 3.4 2.9 2.4 2.0 1.9 2.0 2.3 2.7 3.1 3.5 3.6 3.5 3.2 2.8 2.4 2.1 1.9 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.4 3.8 4.1 4.1 3.8 3.5 2.9 2.5 2.1 1.9 2.0 2.3 2.7 3.1 3.4 3.6 3.5 3.2 2.8 2.4 2.1 1.9 2.0 2.3 2.8 3.3 3.7 4.0 4.0 3.8 3.4 2.8 2.4 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.1 3.5 3.6 3.5 3.3 2.9 2.4 2.1 2.0 2.1 2.4 2.9 3.3 3.8 4.0 4.0 3.8 3.4 2.8 2.4 2.0 1.9 2.0 2.3 2.7 3.2 3.5 3.6 3.5 3.2 2.8 2.3 2.0 1.8 2.0 2.3 2.8 3.3 3.7 3.9 3.8 3.4 2.9 2.4 2.0 1.7 1.7 1.9 2.3 2.8 3.3 3.6 3.8 3.6 3.2 2.7 2.1 1.8 1.7 1.9 2.3 2.8 3.3 3.8 4.0 3.8 3.5 2.9 2.4 1.0 1.7 1.7 2.1 2.5 3.1 3.6 3.9 4.0 3.7 3.3 2.7 2.2 1.9 1.8 2.0 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.0 4.1 3.9 3.4 2.9 2.3 1.9 1.8 2.0 2.3 2.9 3.5 4.1 4.4 4.3 3.9 3.3 2.7 2.2 1.9 2.0 2.3 2.8 3.3 3.8 4.2 4.1 3.8 3.2 2.6 2.1 1.8 1.8 2.1 2.7 3.3 3.9 4.4 4.5 4.2 3.7 3.0 2.3 1.9 1.7 1.9 2.3 2.9 3.5 4.0 4.1 3.9 3.4 2.8 2.2 1.7 1.4 1.6 2.0 2.7 3.3 4.1 4.4 4.4 4.0 3.3 2.6 2.0 1 1.6 2 1.6 3 4 5 1.9 2.3 2.9 6 3.6 7 4.0 8 4.0 9 3.7 10 3.1 11 2.4 Noon 13 1.9 1.5 14 15 1.5 1.8 16 2.4 17 3.1 18 19 3.9 4.4 20 4.7 21 22 4.6 40 23 3 3 APRIL, 1904. — Continued. Day of Month 17 18 Hours ft. ft. 2.6 3.1 1 2.0 2.4 2 1.7 1.9 3 r. 1.7 1.7 4 2.1 1.9 5 2.6 2.3 6 3.3 2.9 7 3.8 3.6 8 4.1 4.1 9 4.0 4.3 10 3.7 4.0 11 3.0 3.5 Noon 2.4 2.9 13 1.8 2.3 14 1.5 1.8 15 1.5 1.6 16 1.9 1.8 17 2.6 2.3 18 3.4 3.1 19 4.1 3.8 20 4.6 4.5 21 4.7 4.8 22 4.4 4.8 23 3.9 4.4 19 ft. 20 ft. 21 22 23 ft. ft. ft. 24 ft. 25 ft. 26 27 ft. ft. 28 29 30 ft. ft. ft. 3.8 4.1 4.4 4.7 4.4 3.7 (3.1) ( :2.5) 1.7 1.4 1.5 1.8 3.1 3.4 3.9 4.5 4.6 4.2 (3.7) (3.1) 2.3 1.7 1.4 1.4 2.4 2.8 3.2 4.0 4.4 4.4 (4.2) (3.6) 3.1 2.2 1.7 1.4 2.0 2.2 2.6 3.4 3.9 4.2 (4.3) (4.1) (3.6) 3.0 2.3 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.7 3.3 3.7 (4.1) (4.3) (4.1) 3.8 3.1 2.4 2.1 1.8 1.7 2.4 2.6 3.1 (3.6) (4.1) (4.4) 4.3 3.8 3.2 2.5 2.1 1.7 1.9 2.0 2.4 (3.0) (3.6) (4.1) 4.5 4.4 3.8 3.0 2.6 2.1 1.9 1.8 1.9 (2.4) (2.8) 3.7 4.3 4.5 4.3 3.6 3.1 2.6 2.1 1.7 1.5 (1.8)( ;2.i) 3.0 3.6 4.2 4.3 4.0 3.6 3.1 2.6 2.0 1.5 (1.4)(1.5) 2.1 2.8 3.5 3.9 4.0 3.8 3.6 3.1 2.5 1.9 (1.5) (1.3) 1.5 2.0 2.6 3.2 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.5 3.0 2.4 (2.0) (1.4) 1.2 1.3 1.9 2.3 3.2 3.5 3.9 3.8 3.5 2.9 (2.6) 1.8 (1.8) 1.1 1.3 1.6 2.6 2.9 3.5 3.8 3.8 3.4 (3.2) 2.5 (2.4) 1.3 1.1 1.2 2.0 2.3 3.0 3.4 3.8 (3.9) (3.8) 3.3 (3.0) 1.9 1.5 1.2 1.6 1.7 2.5 2.9 3.5 (4.0) (4.3) 4.1 (3.6) 2.7 2.1 1.6 1.6 1.5 2.0 2.4 3.0 (3.5) (4.3) 4.5 (4.2) 3.6 3.0 2.2 1.9 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.4 (2.9) (4.1) 4.5 (4.8) 4.5 4.0 3.2 2.4 1.9 1.8 1.7 2.0 (2.3) (3.5) 4.2 (4.8) 5.0 4.8 4.2 3.2 2.4 2.1 1.8 1.6 (1.8) (2.8) 3.5 4.5 5.0 5.2 4.9 4.0 3.2 2.7 2.0 1.6 (1.5) (2.2) 2.7 3.8 4.6 5.1 5.2 4.5 3.8 3.4 2.6 1.9 (1.6) (1.6) 2.0 2.9 3.7 4.5 5.0 4.8 4.4 4.0 3.3 2.4 (2.0) (1.6) 1.5 2.1 2.9 3.6 4.3 4.6 4.6 4.5 3.9 3.0 (2.5) (2.0) 1.4 1.6 2.0 2.6 3.5 64 TIDES AND BENCH MARKS MAY, 1904. Day of Month. . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Hours ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. 2.5 8.4 (3.6) 4.3 (4.4) 4.3 4.2 3.8 3.3 2.9 2.4 2.0 1.9 1.7 2.0 2.3 1 1.8 2.6 (3.0) 3.7 (3.9) 4.2 4.3 4.1 3.7 3.3 2.9 2.3 2.0 1.7 1.7 1.9 2 .... 1.4 1.8 (2.5) 3.0 (3.3) 3.7 4.1 4.1 4.0 3.8 3.3 2.8 2.5 2.0 1.8 1.8 3 1.4 1.5 (2.0) 2.3 (2.8) 3.2 3.7 3.9 4.0 4.0 3.7 3.3 3.0 2.5 2.1 1.9 4 1.8 1.6 (1.6) 1.9 (2.4) 2.6 3.2 3.5 3.8 4.0 4.0 3.7 3.5 3.1 2.7 2.4 5 .... 2.4 2.0 (2.0) 1.7 (2.0) 2 2 2.7 3.0 3.4 3.8 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.6 3.3 2.9 6 .... 3.2 2.6 (2.4) 1.9 (1.8) 1.9 2.3 2.6 3.0 3.3 3.6 3.7 4.0 3.9 3.8 3.5 7 .... 3.9 3.3 2.9 2.2 1.9 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.4 3.7 3.8 4.0 4.0 8 4.2 4.0 3.5 2.8 2.3 2.1 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.3 2.6 2.8 3.2 3.5 3.9 4.1 9 4.1 4.2 4.0 3.3 2.8 2.5 2.3 2.0 2.0 1.9 2.1 2.9 2.6 2.9 3.5 3.9 10 3.7 (3.8) 4.1 3.7 3.3 2.9 2.6 2.3 2.1 1.9 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.3 2.8 3.3 11 2.9 (3.2) 3.9 3.7 3.6 3.3 3.1 2.7 2.4 2.1 l.S 1.6 1.6 1.7 2.1 2.0 Noon . . 2.3 (2.3) 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.6 3.5 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.1 1.8 1.5 1.4 1.6 1.9 13 1.6 (2.1) 2.8 3.1 3.3 3.6 3.8 3.6 3.3 3.0 2.5 2.2 1.8 1.5 1.5 1.5 14 1.3 (1.7) 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.4 3.8 3.8 3.7 3.5 3.1 2.7 2.3 1.9 1.7 1.5 l.j .... 1.3 (1.4) 1.8 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.6 3.8 4.0 3.9 3.6 3.4 2.9 2.6 2.2 1.8 10 1.8 (2.2) 1.6 1.8 2.2 2.7 3.3 3.5 4.0 4.1 4.0 4.0 3.6 3.3 2.9 2.4 17 2.0 (3.0) 1.9 1.7 2.0 2.3 2.9 3.2 3.7 4.0 4.1 4,3 4.2 4.0 3.8 3.1 IS 3.."> 3.7 2.3 1.9 1.9 2.1 2.5 2.8 3.3 3.7 4.0 4.0 4.5 4.6 4.4 3.9 19 4.4 (4.1 > 3.0 2.3 2.1 2.1 2 2 2.4 2.8 3.3 3.5 4.1 4.5 4.8 4.9 4.6 20 .... .... 5.0 (4.5) 3.8 3.0 2.0 2.3 2.2 2.2 2.4 2.8 3.0 3.6 4.0 4.5 4.9 4.9 21 5.2 (4.8) 4.5 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.9 3.4 4.0 4.5 4.9 22 4.9 (4.8) 4.8 (4.1) 3.7 3.3 2.9 2.4 2 2 2.1 2.0 2.3 2.6 3.2 3.9 4.3 23 4.2 (4.3) 4.7 (4.6) 4.2 3.8 3.3 2.8 2.4 2.2 1.9 2.0 2.0 2.6 3.1 3.5 MAY, 1904. — Continued. l>ay of Month 17 18 Hours ft. ft. 2.7 3.4 1 2.0 2.6 2 1.7 2.0 3 1.6 1.7 4 1.9 1.7 r, 2.3 2.0 6 3.0 2.5 7 3.5 3.1 8 4.0 3.7 9 . 4.0 4.0 10 3.6 4.0 11 3.0 3.5 Noon 2.3 2.9 13 1.7 2.2 14 1.4 1.7 15 1.5 1.4 10 1.9 1.6 17 2.6 2.0 18 3.4 2.7 19 4.1 3.5 20 4.8 4.3 21 5.1 4.9 22 4.8 5.0 23 4.1 4.7 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. 4.1 4.6 4.8 4.7 4.0 3.2 2.5 1.9 1.7 1.6 2.0 2.6 3.2 3.3 4.0 4.4 4.7 4.5 3.9 3.1 2.3 1.9 1.6 1.6 1.9 2.4 2.5 3.2 3.8 4.4 4.6 4.3 3.7 2.9 2.4 1.9 1.0 1.7 1.9 1.9 2.5 3.1 3.9 4.3 4.4 4.2 3.5 3.1 2.5 2.0 1.8 1.7 1.6 l.i) 2.4 3.2 3.8 4.1 4.3 4.0 3.7 3.1 2.5 2.1 1.9 1.7 1.6 1.8 2.. 5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.2 4.2 3.8 3.2 2.7 2.2 2.0 1.7 1.6 2.0 2.3 2.9 3.5 3.9 4.2 4.2 3.8 3.3 2.8 2.6 2.1 1.8 1.8 1.7 ■> o 2.8 3.4 3.9 4.2 4.1 3.9 3.4 3.2 2.6 2.2 1.9 1.5 1.6 2.0 2.7 3.3 3.8 4.0 4.1 3.9 3.8 3.3 2.8 2.2 1.7 1.4 1.5 2.0 2.6 3.1 3.6 3.9 4.1 4.0 3.8 3.5 2.8 2.1 1.6 1.3 1.5 1.9 2.4 3.0 3.4 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.0 3.4 2.7 2.0 1.5 1.3 1.5 1.7 2.3 2.8 3.3 3.5 3.9 4.2 4.0 3.4 2.7 2.0 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.7 2.2 2.7 2.9 3.6 4.1 4.3 4.0 3.4 2.7 2.0 1.7 1.4 1.4 1.7 2.1 2.3 3.0 3.8 4.3 4.3 4.1 3.5 2.8 2.3 1.8 1.5 1.5 1.7 l.S 2.4 3.3 4.0 4.3 4.5 4.2 3.7 3.2 2.4 1.9 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.9 2.7 3.4 4.0 4.6 4.6 4.5 4.1 3.3 2.5 2.2 1.9 1.6 1.7 2.1 2.8 3.4 4.2 4.7 4.9 4.7 4.2 3.4 3.0 2.4 2.1 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.7 3.5 4.3 4.9 5.0 4.8 4.3 3.8 3.2 2.7 2.1 2.0 1.9 2.1 2.8 3.6 4.5 4.'.» 5.1 4.9 4.6 4.0 3.6 2.8 2.4 1.9 1.8 2 2 2.9 3.7 4.4 5.0 5.1 5.1 4.6 4.3 3.6 3.0 2.2 1.8 l.S 2.2 2.9 3.<) 4.3 4.S 5.0 5.0 4.8 4.3 3.7 2.8 2.1 1.7 l.S 2.2 2.8 3.6 4.1 4.7 4.9 4.9 4.7 4.3 3.4 2.7 2.0 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.7 3.4 4.0 4.4 GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XII m ,-*• ' ■ -a BAHAMA FOSSILS THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 65 JUNE, 1904. Day of Month . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Hours ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. 3.6 4.1 4.3 4.3 4.2 3.9 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.4 2.2 2.1 2.1 2.5 3.0 (3.6) 1 2.9 3.4 3.7 4.0 4.1 4.1 4.0 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.4 2.1 2.0 2.2 (3.0) 2 2.3 2.7 3.2 3.5 3.8 4.0 4.1 3.8 3.6 3.3 2.9 2.S 2.3 1.9 1.9 (2.4) 3 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.3 3.7 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.7 3.5 3.3 2.7 2.2 1.9 (1.9) 4 1.7 1.8 2.1 2.5 2.8 3.2 3.6 3.7 3.9 4.0 3.9 3.9 3.3 2.7 2.2 (1-7) 5 1.9 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.1 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.1 4.2 3.9 3.3 2.8 (2.0) 6 2.4 1.9 2.0 1.9 2.0 2.3 2.5 2.7 3.2 3.6 4.0 4.2 4.2 3.9 3.4 (2.4) 7 3.0 2.4 2.3 2.1 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.7 3.1 3.6 3.8 4.2 4.3 3.9 2.8 8 3.5 3.0 2.7 2.5 2.1 2.0 2.0 1.9 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.3 4.0 4.4 4.3 3.5 9 3.9 3.5 3.2 2.9 2.5 2.2 2.1 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.3 4.0 4.3 4.1 10 3.9 3.8 3.6 3.4 3.0 2.6 2.4 2.0 1.9 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.7 3.4 3.9 4.3 11 3.7 3.8 3.8 3.7 3.4 3.1 2.8 2.4 2.1 1.9 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.7 3.2 4.0 Noon 3.2 3.6 3.7 3.9 3.8 3.6 3.3 3.0 2.6 2.3 2.0 1.9 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.5 13 2.7 3.2 3.4 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.8 3.5 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 1.8 1.7 1.9 2.8 14 2.1 2.7 3.0 3.4 3.6 4.0 4.1 3.9 3.8 3.4 3.1 2.8 2.1 1.6 1.5 2.1 15 1.8 2.2 2.5 3.0 3.3 3.9 4.1 4.2 4.2 4.1 3.9 3.5 2.7 1.9 1.6 1.6 16 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.5 2.9 3.5 3.9 4.1 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.3 3.5 2.6 2.0 1.5 17 2.1 1.9 1.9 2.2 2.5 3.1 3.5 3.8 4.3 4.7 5.0 4.9 4.3 3.5 2.8 1.7 18 2.7 2.3 2.1 2.1 2.2 2.6 3.1 3.3 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.2 5.0 4.4 3.7 2.2 19 3.4 2.8 2.5 2.3 2.2 2.3 2.7 2.8 3.5 4.0 4.7 5.1 5.3 5.1 4.5 3.2 20 4.0 3.4 3.0 2.6 2.3 2.2 2.3 2.4 3.0 3.5 4.1 4.6 5.2 5.4 5.0 4.0 21 4.5 4.0 3.6 3.1 2.8 2.4 2.2 2.2 2.5 2.9 3.3 3.9 4.7 5.2 5.2 4.8 22 4.8 4.4 4.1 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.4 2.2 2.2 2.4 2.7 3.2 4.1 4.6 (5.0) 5.1 23 4.6 4.5 4.4 4.0 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.4 2.2 2.1 2.3 2.5 3.1 3.8 (4.3) 5.0 JUNE, 1904. — Continued. Day of Month Hours 17 ft. 18 ft. 19 ft. 20 ft. 21 ft. 22 ft. 23 ft. 24 ft. 25 ft. 26 ft. 27 ft. 28 ft. 29 ft. 30 ft. 4.5 4.7 4.0 3.2 2.4 1.7 1.5 1.7 2.1 2.8 3.5 4.1 4.3 4.1 3.6 3.0 2.3 1.7 1.5 1.7 2.1 2.9 3.7 4.3 4.7 4.7 4.3 3.7 2.9 2.2 1.7 1.4 1.6 2.0 2.7 3.4 4.0 4.3 4.1 3.7 3.1 2.4 1.9 1.6 1.7 2.1 2.7 3.5 4.1 4.5 4.4 4.1 3.5 2.8 2.1 1.6 1.4 1.6 2.1 2.8 3.5 4.1 4.4 4.4 4.0 3.4 2.7 2.2 1.9 2.0 2.3 2.9 3.5 4.0 4.4 4.4 4.1 3. .5 2.7 2.1 1.7 i.<; 1.9 2.4 3.0 3.8 4.3 4.7 4.6 4.2 3.6 2.9 2.3 2.0 2.0 2.4 2.9 3.6 4.1 4.4 4.4 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.1 1.7 1.6 2.0 2.5 3.3 4.0 4.6 4.9 4.8 4.5 3.8 3.1 2.5 2.1 2.1 2.4 3.0 3.5 4.1 4.4 4.3 4.0 3.4 2.8 2.1 1.7 1.7 2.0 2.6 3.4 4.1 4.7 5.0 4.9 4.4 3.7 3.0 2.3 2.0 2.0 2.3 2.8 3.4 3.9 4.2 4.2 3.9 3.3 2.6 1.9 1.5 1.5 1.9 2.5 3.3 4.1 4.7 5.0 4.9 4.4 3.6 2.9 2.2 1.9 1.9 2.2 2.7 3.3 3.8 4.2 4.1 3.8 3.1 2.4 1.8 1.5 1.6 2.0 2.7 3.4 4.2 4.8 5.0 4.8 4.3 3.3 2.7 2.1 1.9 1.9 2.3 2.8 3.4 3.9 4.1 4.0 3.6 3.0 2.3 1.8 1.5 1.6 2.1 2.8 3.7 4.5 5.0 5.1 4.8 4.1 3.4 2.6 2.1 1.9 2.0 2.3 2.9 3.5 3.9 4.1 3.9 3.5 2.8 2.2 1.7 1.6 1.8 2.3 3.1 3.8 4.6 5.1 5.1 4.7 4.0 3.3 2.6 2.1 2.0 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.7 4.1 4.2 3.9 3.4 2.7 2.2 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.6 3.4 4.1 4.8 4.9 4.4 3.8 3.0 2.4 2.1 2.0 2.3 2.8 3.3 3.8 4.2 4.1 3.8 3.2 2.7 2.2 1.9 2.0 2.3 3.0 3.7 4.4 4.9 5.0 4.8 4.2 3.5 1 3.7 2.9 2.9 2.3 3 2.1 2.1 4 1.6 2.1 5 6 1.5 1.8 2.4 2.5 2.9 3.5 8 3.1 4.0 9 10 3.8 4.3 4.2 4.1 11 4.2 3.8 3.7 3.1 13 14 15 3.2 2.5 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.0 16 1.6 2.1 17 1.6 2.5 18 2.0 3.2 19 3.9 OQ . .S.G 4 5 21 4.3 4.8 22 4.9 4 S 23 5.0 4.5 66 TIDES AND BENCH MARKS HIGH AND LOW WATERS. Date. High Waters. Low Waters. A. M. P. M. A. M. P. M. 1903. Time. Height. Time. Height. Time. Height. Time. Height. h. m. Feet. h. m. Feet. h. m. Feet. h. m. Feet. July 1 100 3.8 (6 30) (1.0) (7 10) (1.7) 2 100 3.5 2 00 4.5 (7 30) (1.3) 8 20 2.1 3 2 50 4.2 (3 05) (4.6) 8 20 1.7 (9 25) (2.1) 4 (3 25)* (4.1) 4 10 4.6 9 40 1.6 10 30 2.1 5 ■. 4 00 3.9 4 40 4.7 10 20 1.6 1115 2.0 6 5 00 3.8 5 53 4.7 11 10 1.6 7 6 00 3.8 6 20 4.8 00 1.9 1150 1.7 8 6 20 3.9 6 50 4.8 35 2.0 12 20 1.7 9 7 10 3.9 7 45 4.8 115 2.0 100 1.7 10 8 00 4.0 (8 20) (4.8) 2 10 2.0 2 00 1.9 11 8 20 4.0 8 50 4.7 (2 35) (2.0) 2 10 1.9 12 8 50 4.1 9 15 4.7 a 00 2.0 2 50 2.0 13 9 40 4.2 10 00 4.6 3 50 2.0 3 30 2.1 14 10 50 4.1 10 45 4.5 4 30 2.0 4 30 2.1 15 11 40 4.3 11 50 4.4 5 10 2.0 5 15 2.3 16 12 15 4.5 5 50 2.2 6 15 2.4 17 20 4.3 100 4.5 6 50 2.0 7 10 2.4 18 100 4.2 2 00 4,5 7 20 2.0 8 10 2.3 19 2 00 4.1 3 00 4.8 8 15 1.9 9 10 2.3 20 3 00 4.2 3 55 5.0 9 10 1.8 10 15 2.2 21 4 00 4.2 4 50 5.2 10 15 1.6 11 15 1.9 22 5 00 4.3 3 40 5.4 1100 1.4 23 6 00 4.5 6 30 5.5 15 1.7 12 00 1.3 24 7 00 4.6 7 35 5.6 50 1.6 100 1.2 25 8 00 4.8 8 25 5.4 2 00 1.5 2 00 1.3 26 8 50 4.7 9 20 5.2 2 50 1.3 2 50 1.2 27 10 00 4.7 10 25 5.0 3 40 1.3 3 50 1.4 28 10 50 4.8 1115 4.8 4 30 1.4 4 50 1.7 29 1145 4.7 5 20 1.6 5 45 1.8 30 00 4.5 12 40 4.6 6 30 1.6 7 00 1.9 31 100 4.2 140 4.5 7 10 1.6 7 50 2.1 Aug. 1 2 00 4.0 2 30 4.6 8 10 1.8 9 00 2.2 2 3 00 3.9 3 35 4.5 9 15 1.8 10 00 2.1 3 3 50 3.8 4 30 4.6 10 00 1.8 1100 2.1 4 4 55 3.9 5 15 4.7 10 50 1.9 11 50 2.1 5 5 20 4.0 6 20 4.8 1125 1.9 6 7 20 4.0 7 50 4.7 115 2.1 100 1.8 7 8 00 3.9 3 00 4.6 2 10 2.0 150 1.7 8 8 00 4.1 8 00 4.7 2 00 2.0 2 00 1.9 9 8 10 4.2 8 30 4.7 2 20 2.0 2 15 1.9 10 8 50 4.2 8 55 4.5 3 00 2.0 2 50 1.8 11 9 10 4.2 9 35 4.6 3 00 1.9 3 15 2.0 12 9 55 4.6 10 00 4.6 4 00 2.1 3 50 2.3 13 10 20 4.7 10 30 4.4 4 00 2.1 4 35 2.4 14 11 00 4.5 11 00 4.1 4 40 1.9 5 25 2.1 15 12 30 4.7 5 25 1.9 6 50 2.3 16 35 4.3 115 4.8 6 50 2.0 7 30 2.4 17 1 30 4.3 2 15 5.0 7 40 2.1 8 50 2.4 18 2 35 4.4 3 15 5.1 8 35 1.9 9 45 2.3 19 3 30 4.4 4 10 5.3 9 35 1.7 10 40 2.1 20 4 30 4.6 5 10 5.5 10 35 1.7 1150 1.9 21 5 30 4.7 00 5.4 11 35 1.4 22 6 20 4.8 7 00 5.4 30 1.5 12 30 1.2 23 7 20 4.8 7 50 5.2 120 1.3 125 1.1 24 8 15 4.9 8 40 5.1 2 00 1.1 2 30 1.2 25 9 10 5.0 9 25 4.8 3 00 1.3 3 20 1.4 26 10 10 4.9 10 20 4.5 3 50 1.4 4 25 1.6 27 10 55 4.8 11 00 4.4 4 30 1.5 5 10 1.9 28 1150 4.8 5 30 1.7 6 10 2.1 29 10 4.3 1 00 4.8 6 10 1.9 7 15 2.3 30 1 10 4.1 2 00 4.6 7 15 2.0 8 25 2.3 31 2 15 4.0 2 45 4.6 8 15 2.1 9 30 2.4 * The values in parentheses are interpolated. THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 67 HIGH AND LOW WATERS. — Continued. Date. High Waters. Low Waters. A. M. P. M. A. M. P. M. 1903. Time. Height. Time. Height. Time. Height. Time. Height. h. m. Feet. h. m. Feet. Sept. 1 3 00 4.1 3 45 4.7 2 4 00 4.1 4 50 4.5 3 5 10 4.0 5 25 4.8 4 5 55 4.3 6 20 4.9 5 6 50 4.5 7 00 5.1 6 7 15 4.7 7 20 5.2 7 7 50 5.0 7 50 5.2 8 8 25 5.1 8 30 5.1 9 9 00 4.7 9 10 4.7 10 9 50 5.1 10 00 5.3 11 (10 40) (5.1) (10 50) (4.6) 12 (1130) (4.8) (1145) (4.3) 13 (12 20) (4.7) 14 (0 35) (4.1) (1 10) (4.7) 15 (1 30) (4.2) 2 00 4.7 16 2 25 4.0 (2 55) (4.9) 17 3 10 4.3 3 50 5.0 18 4 20 4.7 5 00 5.3 19 5 30 5.0 6 10 5.3 20 (6 25) (5.0) (7 00) (5.2) 21 (7 15) (5.1) 7 50 5.1 22 8 10 5.3 8 30 5.1 23 9 00 5.5 9 00 5.0 24 9 40 5.3 10 00 4.5 25 10 40 4.9 1100 4.2 26 11 30 4.7 11 45 4.0 27 12 25 4.6 28 45 4.0 1 25 4.4 29 1 50 3.9 2 20 4.4 30 2 35 3.9 3 15 4.4 Oct. 1 3 25 3.9 4 15 4.4 2 4 25 4.1 5 00 4.5 3 5 15 4.3 (5 40) (4.8) 4 5 40 4.8 6 15 4.8 5 6 25 4.8 7 00 4.7 6 7 10 5.0 7 20 4.8 7 7 50 5.1 7 50 4.7 8 8 30 5.1 8 50 4.7 9 9 15 5.4 9 30 4.7 10 10 10 5.4 3 00 4.7 11 10 45 5.3 10 45 4.4 12 11 25 4.8 13 00 4.0 12 40 4.5 14 1 10 4.0 1 50 4.8 15 2 15 4.5 2 50 4.9 16 3 00 4.6 3 50 4.9 17 (4 00) (5.0) 4 50 5.0 18 (4 55) (5.1) 5 40 4.9 19 (5 50) (5.2) 6 40 4.9 20 (6 45) (5.3) 7 20 4.9 21 (7 45) (5.4) 8 00 4.7 22 8 40 5.3 8 50 4.5 23 9 20 5.2 9 40 4.3 24 10 20 5.0 10 30 4.0 25 11 00 4.5 11 15 3.7 26 11 40 4.3 27 00 3.6 12 25 4.1 28 1 00 3.7 1 20 4.1 29 1 50 3.8 2 .30 4.1 30 3 00 3.8 3 10 4.1 31 3 40 3.9 4 00 4.0 h. m. Feet. h. m. Feet. 9 10 2.2 10 10 2.4 10 30 2.0 11 10 2.1 10 45 2.0 11 35 2.4 12 00 2.1 20 2.2 12 50 2.2 1 10 2.4 1 15 2.4 1 40 2.5 1 50 .2.4 2 00 2.4 2 25 2.4 2 28 2.4 3 15 2.0 3 20 2.1 4 10 3.0 (4 05) (2.1) (5 05) (2.4) (5 00) (2.1) (6 00) (2.2) (5 50) (1.9) (6 50) (2.2) (6 40) (1.8) (7 45) (2.0) 7 30 1.6 8 40 1.9 8 30 1.7 9 20 1.9 9 10 1.7 10 25 1.8 10 40 1.6 11 25 1.8 11 50 1.5 (0 15) (1.6) (12 40) (1.4) (1 10) (1.5) (1 30) (1.4) 2 00 1.6 2 25 1.7 2 30 1.8 3 00 2.0 3 00 1.8 4 00 1.9 4 10 1.8 5 10 2.0 5 15 1.9 6 10 2.1 6 00 2.0 7 00 2.2 6 40 2.1 8 00 2.2 7 40 2.3 8 45 2.4 8 50 2.2 9 50 2.3 9 50 2.2 10 25 2.3 10 50 2.1 11 20 2.2 (11 30) (2.2) 11 50 2.4 12 10 2.3 20 2.1 1 00 2.1 1 00 2.2 1 35 2.3 1 30 2.1 2 00 2.1 2 10 2.0 2 40 2.0 2 35 2.1 3 35 2.3 3 35 2.2 4 35 2.4 4 20 2.2 5 15 2.2 (5 15) (1.9) 6 15 2.0 6 15 1.6 7 15 1.7 7 10 1.9 8 25 2.2 8 25 2.0 9 00 2.0 9 20 1.9 10 10 1.9 10 40 1.8 (10 50) (1.7) 11 20 1.0 11 35 1.6 12 25 1.6 25 1.6 1 25 1.7 (1 15) (1.6) 2 00 1.7 2 00 1.6 3 00 1.8 2 50 1.8 3 50 2.0 3 40 1.9 4 40 2.0 4 25 1.9 5 25 1.9 5 25 1.9 6 10 2.0 6 00 2.0 7 00 2.0 7 00 2 2 7 50 2.2 8 25 2.3 8 50 2.1 9 00 2.1 9 45 2.0 10 00 2.1 10 25 1.8 68 TIDES AND BENCH MARKS HIGH AND LOW WATERS. — Continued. Date. High Waters. Low Waters. A. M. P. , M. A. M. P. M. 1903. Time. HeigJit. Time. Height. Time. Height. Time. Height. h. m. Nov. 1 4 35 2 5 15 3 5 50 4 6 30 5 7 10 6 (8 00) 7 8 45 8 9 30 9 10 25 10 11 20 11 00 12 1 00 13 2 15 14 3 20 15 4 15 16 5 10 17 6 00 18 7 00 19 7 30 20 8 25 21 9 00 22 9 45 23 10 25 24 11 00 25 11 40 26 25 27 1 20 28 2 10 29 3 00 30 3 40 Dec. 1 4 35 2 5 20 3 6 20 4 7 00 5 7 50 6 8 25 7 20 8 10 10 9 11 00 10 11 50 11 50 12 2 00 13 3 00 14 (3 55) 15 4 50 10 f5 40) 17 .30 18 7 10 19 8 10 20 8 30 21 9 15 22 10 00 23 10 30 24 (11 10) 25 (11 55) 26 (0 20) 27 1 00 28 2 15 29 3 10 30 4 00 31 5 00 Feet. h. m. Feet. h. m. Feet. h. m. Feet. 3.9 4 50 4.0 10 50 1.8 10 50 1.7 4.3 5 25 4.1 11 35 1.8 11 35 1.5 4.4 6 00 4.0 12 25 1.6 4.S 7 00 4.4 00 1.5 1 00 1.8 4.3 7 25 4.3 45 1.6 1 35 1.7 (5.0) 8 10 4.3 (1 30) (1.5) 2 25 1.7 5.0 9 00 4.0 2 10 1.4 3 15 1.5 4.9 10 00 3.9 3 10 1.3 4 15 1.5 4.9 11 00 4.0 4 00 1.5 5 00 1.5 4.8 5 00 1.6 6 00 1.7 4.0 12 15 4.6 5 45 1.0 7 00 1.6 4.1 1 20 4.4 7 00 1.7 8 00 1.5 4.1 2 30 4.3 8 15 1.7 9 00 1.5 4.3 3 25 4.3 9 30 1.7 10 00 1.4 4.6 4 25 4.3 10 30 1.7 10 50 1.4 4.8 5 25 4.3 11 30 1.6 11 40 1.5 5.0 6 10 4.4 12 20 1.7 5.0 7 00 4.1 30 1.5 1 10 1.6 5.0 7 45 4.1 1 15 1.4 1 50 1.6 5.0 8 45 3.9 1 50 1.6 2 40 1.7 4.7 9 00 3.9 2 25 1.5 3 15 1.7 4.8 10 00 3.9 3 15 1.7 4 15 1.9 4.6 10 50 3.8 3 50 1.9 4 40 2.0 4.4 11 30 3.6 4 45 2.0 5 40 2.0 4.2 5 20 2.0 6 20 2.0 3.8 12 30 4.3 6 15 2.2 7 00 2.1 3.9 1 30 4.0 7 30 2.3 8 00 2.0 3.8 2 30 3.9 8 20 2.1 8 40 1.9 4.2 3 00 4.0 9 45 2 2 9 25 1.8 4.0 4 00 4.0 10 00 2.0 10 15 1.7 4.5 5 00 3.9 11 00 1.9 11 00 1.5 4.6 5 35 4.0 12 00 1.7 4.8 6 25 3.9 00 1.4 1 00 1.4 5.0 7 00 4.0 35 1.2 1 30 1.5 5.0 8 00 4.0 1 20 1.1 2 25 1.1 5.0 8 50 4.0 2 10 0.9 3 00 1.1 5.1 (9 40) (4.1) 3 00 1.0 (3 55) (1.2) 5.0 10 35 4.2 (3 50) (1.2) 4 50 1.3 4.9 (11 40) (4.2) 4 40 1.5 6 00 1.5 4.6 (5 35) (1.5) 7 00 1.3 4.2 1 00 4.2 6 30 1.6 7 50 1.3 4.2 2 00 4.0 8 00 1.7 9 00 1.3 4.4 3 10 3.9 9 15 1.6 9 45 1.2 (4.5) (4 10) (3.9) (10 15) (1.6) 10 35 1.2 4.5 5 10 3.9 11 15 1.6 (11 15) (1.2) (4.6) 5 50 3.9 (12 10) (1.6) 4.7 6 45 3.9 00 1.3 1 00 1.5 4.7 7 10 3.8 50 1.3 2 00 1,4 4.6 8 00 3.5 1 35 1.2 2 30 1.3 4.5 8 50 3.0 2 10 1.3 3 00 1.4 4.3 9 35 3.5 2 45 1.2 3 40 1.4 4.3 10 15 3.6 3 30 1.4 4 20 1.5 4.2 (10 55 > (3.5) 4 00 1.7 T) 10 1.6 (4.1) (11 35) (3.6) (4 45) (1.9) (5 45) (1.8) (4.0) (5 30) (2.0) (6 25) (1.9) (3.7) (12 35) (3.8) (6 15) (2.0) 7 00 1.7 3.6 1 20 3.6 7 00 1.9 7 45 1.5 3.8 (2 20) (3.6) (8 15) (1.8) 8 45 1.5 3.9 3 15 3.5 9 30 1.8 9 40 1.3 4.1 4 10 3.6 10 30 1.7 10 40 1.1 4.3 5 18 3.5 11 35 1.5 11 30 1.0 THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 69 HIGH AND LOW WATERS.— Continued. Date. High Waters. Low Waters. A. M. P. M. A. M. P. M. 1904. Time. Height. Time. Height. Time. Height. Time. Height. h. m. Feet. h. m. Feet. li. m. Feet. h. m. Feet. Jan. 1 5 45 4.5 5 50 3.8 12 25 1.4 2 6 40 4.9 6 45 3.9 15 1.0 115 1.3 3 7 25 5.0 7 35 4.2 1 00 0.9 2 10 1.2 4 8 15 5.2 8 30 4.0 2 00 0.9 3 00 1.1 5 9 20 5.0 9 30 4.0 2 40 0.9 :!45 1.0 6 9 50 4.8 10 30 4.1 3 40 1.0 4 30 0.9 7 10 50 4.6 11 35 4.4 4 30 1.1 5 15 1.2 8 11 45 4.5 5 35 1.6 6 2U 1.3 9 30 4.3 12 40 4.2 6 30 1.6 7 10 1.3 10 120 4.2 140 3.7 7 45 1.6 8 00 1.1 11 2 30 4.2 2 45 3.7 8 50 1.6 9 00 1.2 12 3 30 4.3 3 50 3.6 10 00 1.6 9 55 1.2 13 4 20 4.3 4 50 3.7 1 1 10 1.5 10 40 1.3 14 5 10 4.3 5 15 3.4 12 00 1.5 11 45 1.1 15 6 00 4.2 6 15 3.3 12 25 1.2 16 6 50 4.3 7 00 3.5 20 1.1 120 1.4 17 7 30 4.3 7 45 3.6 50 1.1 1 35 1.3 18 8 10 4.4 8 10 3.5 1 30 1.3 2 25 1.3 19 8 50 4.3 9 00 3.4 2 15 1.3 3 15 1.4 20 30 3.9 9 35 3.4 3 10 1.2 3 50 1.3 21 9 55 4.2 10 20 3.8 3 40 1.4 4 15 1.6 22 10 30 4.1 10 50 3.7 4 30 1.8 4 45 1.6 23 1100 3.9 1135 3.8 4 50 1.8 5 10 1.5 24 1135 3.6 GOO 1.7 6 00 1.4 25 30 3.8 12 25 3.6 6 50 1.8 7 00 1.4 26 1 30 3.8 1 25 3.4 7 45 1.7 7 50 1.4 27 2 15 4.0 2 15 3.5 8 40 1.9 8 35 1.4 28 3 15 4.2 (3 20) (3.6) (9 40) (1.7) 9 35 1.3 29 4 15 4.4 4 30 3.7 10 45 1.6 10 25 1.0 30 5 10 4.6 5 10 3.8 11 30 1.4 11 30 0.8 31 6 00 5.0 6 20 4.3 12 35 1.4 Feb. 1 7 00 5.2 7 20 4.1 25 0.9 140 0.9 2 7 50 4.9 (8 15) (4.3) 120 0.5 (2 25) (0.7) 3 8 50 4.8 9 10 4.4 (2 20) (0.6) 3 15 0.8 4 9 35 4.5 10 10 4.1 3 20 0.7 3 50 0.6 5 10 20 4.2 1100 4.1 4 15 0.8 4 40 0.7 6 11 10 3.9 5 10 1.0 5 35 0.8 7 00 4.0 12 00 3.7 CIO 1.3 6 30 1.0 8 1 00 4.0 1 15 3.4 7 20 1.4 7 25 1.1 9 2 00 3.9 2 25 3.3 8 25 1.5 8 25 1.3 10 3 00 4.1 3 25 3.5 9 20 1.7 9 20 1.4 11 (4 00) (4.2) 4 20 3.4 10 30 1.7 10 15 1.5 12 5 00 4.2 5 15 3.6 11 35 1.8 11 20 1.5 13 5 50 4.3 6 00 3.5 12 10 1.6 14 6 30 4.1 (6 40) (3.7) 00 1.1 12 35 1.3 15 (7 05) (4.2) (7 20) (3.9) (0 40) (1.2) 130 1.6 16 (7 35) (4.3) 8 00 4.0 (120) (1.3) (2 00) (1.5) 17 8 10 4.3 8 30 3.9 2 00 1.4 2 25 1.4 18 8 50 4.0 9 10 3.7 2 30 1.3 3 00 1.3 19 9 20 3.9 9 35 3.9 3 15 1.2 3 20 1.4 20 9 50 4.0 10 10 4.0 3 40 1.6 4 00 1.5 21 10 20 3.8 1100 4.0 4 20 1.7 4 40 1.4 22 11 15 3.6 11 45 3.8 5 25 1.7 5 25 1.4 23 12 00 3.4 6 10 1.5 6 00 1.3 24 50 3.8 12 50 3.5 6 50 1.7 7 00 1.5 25 135 4.0 (2 00) (3.3) 7 50 1.7 (8 00) (1.3) 26 (2 45) (4.2) 3 00 3.6 9 10 1.7 9 00 1.4 27 3 50 4.4 4 15 3.7 10 10 1.6 10 20 1.1 28 4 50 4.5 (5 15) (4.1) (1100) (1.3) (1110) (1.0) 29 (5 40) (4.7) 6 10 4.4 (1155) (1.0) 70 TIDES AND BENCH MARKS Date. High Waters. Low Waters. A. M. P. M. A. M. P. M. 1904. Time. Heiglit. Time. Heiglit. Time. Heiglit. Time. Heiglit. Mar. Apr. HIGH AND LOW WATERS.— Continued. Low W . M. Height. h. m. Feet. h. m. Feet. h. m. Feet. h. m. Feet. 1 6 30 4.9 7 15 4.5 00 0.9 12 45 0.8 2 7 25 4.8 7 50 4.7 115 0.7 145 0.8 3 8 15 4.9 8 50 4.9 2 00 0.8 2 35 0.9 4 9 20 4.7 9 45 4.7 3 00 1.1 3 25 1.0 5 10 00 4.4 10 30 4.8 3 50 1.1 4 00 1.1 6 10 45 4.1 1125 4.6 (5 00) (1.4) 5 00 1.3 7 1135 4.0 (5 55) (1.6) 5 50 1.4 8 15 4.5 12 40 3.9 6 45 1.8 6 50 1.7 9 130 4.4 2 00 3.8 7 50 1.9 7 50 1.7 10 2 20 4.1 2 40 3.4 8 45 1.9 8 40 1.6 11 3 20 4.1 4 00 3.6 10 00 1.8 9 45 1.8 12 4 25 4.2 4 50 3.8 10 40 2.0 10 30 1.8 13 5 20 4.3 5 35 3.9 11 30 1.8 11 25 1.8 14 5 50 4.3 6 00 4.0 12 10 1.8 15 6 25 4.1 7 00 3.9 10 1.6 12 35 1.4 16 7 30 4.2 7 25 4.1 100 1.4 135 1.6 17 7 45 4.0 7 50 4.0 140 1.3 135 1.3 18 8 00 4.0 8 40 4.4 (2 25) (1.4) 2 10 1.4 19 9 10 4.1 9 10 4.5 3 10 1.6 3 00 1.5 20 9 20 4.0 9 45 4.4 3 30 1.7 3 25 1.4 21 10 00 4.0 10 25 4.3 4 00 1.7 4 00 1.4 22 10 40 3.7 1115 4.3 5 00 1.6 4 35 1.4 23 11 25 3.6 6 00 1.7 5 25 1.4 24 20 4.3 12 2(1 3.5 6 35 1.7 6 30 1.5 25 110 4.4 130 3.6 7 50 1.7 7 30 1.6 26 '2 10 4.4 2 50- 3.8 8 50 1.8 8 40 1.6 27 3 25 4.5 4 00 4.0 50 1.7 9 50 1.6 28 4 25 4.9 4 50 4.5 10 40 1.7 10 45 1.5 29 5 20 4.9 5 50 5.0 11 30 1.4 30 C 10 5.0 6 35 4.9 00 1.3 12 30 1.1 31 7 10 4.7 7 35 4.9 50 1.0 1 15 0.7 1 7 50 4.5 8 25 5.0 1 50 0.9 2 00 0.8 2 8 40 4.3 9 10 4.9 2 50 1.1 2 45 0.8 3 9 30 4.1 10 10 4.7 3 40 1.1 3 40 1.0 4 10 15 3.9 10 50 4.4 4 25 1.3 4 15 1.3 5 11 20 3.7 11 40 4.2 5 25 1.5 5 25 1.4 6 12 00 3.5 25 1.6 6 10 1.6 7 35 4.2 1 00 3.7 7 10 1.9 7 10 1.9 8 1 30 4.2 2 15 3.6 8 10 1.9 8 10 1.9 9 2 40 4.1 3 10 3.7 00 2.0 9 00 2.0 10 3 25 4.1 4 10 3.6 9 50 1.9 10 10 1.8 11 4 20 3.9 4 45 3.8 10 35 1.7 10 43 1.7 12 5 10 4.0 5 40 4.0 11 10 1.7 11 40 1.8 13 5 50 4.1 6 20 4.4 12 00 1.7 14 6 30 4.2 6 50 4.5 25 1.9 12 30 1.7 15 7 00 4.1 7 30 4.5 1 00 1.7 1 10 1.4 16 7 40 4.0 8 15 4.7 1 40 1.6 1 35 1.5 17 8 20 4.1 8 45 4.8 2 25 1.7 2 20 1.4 18 00 4.3 9 30 4.9 3 15 1.7 3 00 1.6 19 9 45 4.1 10 10 4.8 3 50 1.8 3 30 1.5 20 (10 35) (3.8) (1105) (4.6) 4 40 1.8 (4 20) (1.5) 21 1130 4.0 (5 40) (1.7) 5 15 1.7 22 00 4.7 12 30 3.8 6 35 1.8 6 20 1.7 23 110 4.(! 125 3.8 7 30 1.7 7 40 1.6 24 2 00 4.4 (2 25) (4.0) 8 25 1.5 (8 35) (1.5) 25 (3 00) (4.3) (3 30) (4.4) (9 15) (1.4) (9 25) (1.5) 26 (4 00) (4.3) 4 35 4.6 (10 10) (1.3) 10 20 1.4 27 (5 00) (4.4) (5 35) (4.9) 1100 1.2 1150 1.4 28 6 00 4.5 6 35 5.1 12 00 1.1 29 6 50 4.5 7 15 5.2 35 1.4 12 40 1.1 30 7 35 4.4 8 10 5.2 1 30 1.3 1 35 1.1 GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XIII BAHAMA FOSSILS THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 71 HIGH AND LOW WATERS.— Continued. Date. 1904. High Waters. A. M. P. M. Time. Height. Time. Height. Low Waters. A. M. P. M. Time. Height. Time. Height. h. m. Feet. h. m. Feet. h. m. Feet. h. m. Feet. May 1 8 25 2 9 00 3 10 00 4 10 50 5 11 35 6 00 7 50 8 1 35 9 2 40 10 3 40 11 4 30 12 5 10 13 5 55 14 6 25 15 7 15 16 8 00 17 8 35 18 9 25 19 10 20 20 11 00 21 12 00 22 30 23 2 00 24 2 40 25 4 00 26 5 00 27 5 35 28 6 30 29 7 20 30 8 00 31 9 00 June 1 9 40 2 10 40 3 11 25 4 5 20 6 1 15 7 2 00 8 2 35 9 3 15 10 4 15 11 5 00 12 5 35 13 G 25 14 7 35 15 8 40 16 10 00 17 10 20 18 11 00 19 20 20 21 1 25 22 2 30 23 3 20 24 4 30 25 5 25 26 6 10 27 7 10 28 7 45 29 8 25 30 9 10 4.2 8 50 5.2 2 00 1.3 2 25 1.2 4.2 (9 35) (5.0) 3 10 1.5 (3 05) (1.4) 4.1 10 20 4.8 (4 05) (1.6) 3 50 1.6 3.8 (11 10) (4.6) 5 00 1.7 5 00 1.7 3.6 (5 50) (1.8) 5 40 1.9 4.3 12 40 3.6 6 35 1.9 6 30 2.0 4.3 1 45 3.9 7 30 2.0 7 45 2.2 4.2 2 30 3.8 8 25 1.9 8 50 2.1 4.1 3 30 4.0 8 50 2.0 9 25 2.1 4.0 4 20 4.1 9 40 1.9 10 25 2.1 4.0 5 00 4.1 10 25 .1.8 11 10 1.9 3.9 5 40 4.4 11 00 1.6 11 50 1.9 4.0 6 25 4.5 11 50 1.5 3.9 7 00 4.8 30 1.6 12 20 1.4 4.0 7 45 5.0 1 20 1.7 12 50 1.5 4.1 8 20 5.0 2 00 1.7 1 40 1.4 4.0 9 00 5.1 2 40 1.6 2 20 1.4 4.0 10 00 5.0 3 30 1.6 3 00 1.4 4.0 10 40 4.9 4 25 1.6 4 10 1.5 4.0 11 50 4.8 5 20 1.6 5 30 1.6 4.2 6 00 1.6 6 20 1.9 4.8 1 30 4.3 7 00 1.8 7 20 1.9 4.6 2 30 4.4 8 20 1.5 8 40 1.7 4.4 3 45 4.6 9 00 1.4 9 45 1.7 4.3 4 30 4.7 10 00 1.3 11 00 1.7 4.2 5 30 5.0 11 00 1.3 11 50 1.7 4.3 6 00 5.0 11 40 1.4 4.2 7 00 5.1 35 1.5 12 30 1.3 4.2 7 50 5.1 1 30 1.6 1 20 1.3 4.1 8 25 5.1 2 25 1.6 2 00 1.5 4.1 9 00 5.0 3 00 1.7 2 35 1.6 4.0 10 00 4.8 3 50 1.7 3 30 1.7 3.9 11 00 4.5 4 40 1.8 4 35 1.8 3.9 11 20 4.4 5 35 1.9 5 10 1.9 12 00 3.9 6 20 1.9 6 00 2.1 4.3 12 35 3.8 6 50 1.9 7 00 2.2 4.1 2 00 4.0 7 25 1.9 8 00 2.2 4.1 2 30 4.1 8 30 2.0 9 00 2.2 3.9 3 20 4.2 9 00 1.8 9 30 2.2 3.9 4 15 4.5 9 35 1.9 10 30 2.2 4.0 5 00 4.7 10 30 1.8 11 20 2.1 4.1 5 25 5.1 11 15 1.8 11 55 2.1 4.2 6 15 5.2 11 40 1.8 4.3 7 20 5.3 25 2.0 12 30 1.7 4.4 8 10 5.4 1 30 1.9 2 00 1.6 4.4 9 00 5.2 2 30 1.8 2 25 1.5 4.3 10 15 5.2 3 30 1.6 4 00 1.5 4.3 10 40 5.0 5 00 1.5 4 35 1.5 4.3 11 30 4.8 5 00 1.5 3 00 1.5 12 10 4.3 6 00 1.4 6 20 1.6 4.5 1 20 4.4 7 00 1.4 7 15 1.9 4.5 2 15 4.7 8 00 1.6 8 20 2.0 4.5 3 15 5.0 8 35 1.6 9 30 2.1 4.4 4 15 5.0 9 40 1.7 10 25 2.0 4.2 5 15 5.0 10 30 1.5 11 30 1.9 4.2 6 00 5.0 11 20 1.5 4.1 6 50 5.1 15 1.9 12 10 1.5 4.1 7 30 5.1 1 00 1.9 12 50 1.6 4.2 8 15 5.1 2 00 2.0 1 35 1.8 4.2 9 00 5.0 2 40 2.0 2 20 1.9 4.2 9 30 4.9 3 20 2.0 3 10 2.0 72 tides and bench marks Eeduction of Eecoeds. The tide follows the moon much more closely than it does the sun, so that there is a tendency for the tide to occur when the moon is in a given position in the heavens. The difference between the time of tide and the time of the moon's transit or meridian passage, is called the hmitidal interval for the station. Both upper and lower transits of the moon are usually compared with the time of the first high water and first low water which follows the given transit ; hence we may express the operation as follows : HWI = Time of HW — 3's transit LWI = Time of LW __ 3's transit where HWI ■= high water lunitidal interval LWI = low water lunitidal interval. The purpose of the tabulation given here, called " First Reduction," is to compute the lunitidal intervals for high and low waters, and also to find the mean range of tide and mean half-tide level. In this kind of work the time of the moon's transits should have been reduced to the meridian of Nassau, but in order to save work the unmodified Greenwich transits Avere used, and the final result corrected by the general formula : x = 4: [0.035 (E — L)+S-— L] minutes of time, where x = Correction to the lunitidal intervals, in minutes of time. E = West longitude of the meridian for whk-h the Ephemeris gives the moon's transits. S = West longitude of the time meridian used for recording the obser- vations, expressed in degrees and decimals. L := West longitude of the station or local meridian expressed in degrees and decimals. In this case E = 0, as Greenwich transits are used. S = L=:77° 31' = 77°.35. Substituting these values in the equation it becomes: x = — 0.14 L = — .UX 77.35 = — 10.83 minutes. Hence the mean intervals for both high and low waters are diminished by 10.8 minutes. If, for any purpose, lunitidal intervals in any portion of the First Eeduction are required, they should be corrected by the same con- stant. The mean lunitidal interval for high water at full and change of the moon is called the Establishment of the Port, and tbe mean of all the high water intervals is known as the corrected establishment of the port. For THE BAHAMA ISLANDS Nassau the establishment is Th. 28.7m., and the corrected establishment 7h. 22.8m., from this year of record. Further remarks upon lunitidal intervals follow the table of harmonic constants. FIRST REDUCTION. Lat. 25°05'N. Long. 77°21' W. Note. — Automatic tide gauge No. 49, scale 1 : 9. W. C. Townsend, Observer. Observa- tions made in mean local time. Unmodified Greenwich transits are used. Correction to luni- tidal intervals is iP = — 10.8 m. ■ Date. Time of — • Lunitidal Interval. Height of — ■ Year Moon's High Low High Low High Low 1903. Transits. Water. Water. Water. Water. Water. Water. mo. d. h. m. h. m. h. m. h. m. h. m. feet. feet. July 1 (5 26)* .. .. (6 30) . .. (104) .. (1.0) 17 51 13 00 (19 10) (7 34) 1 19 3.8 (1.7) 2 (6 15) 100 (7 30) 7 09 (115) 3.5 (1.3) 18 39 14 00 20 20 (7 45) 1 41 4.5 2.1 3 (7 03) 2 50 8 20 8 11 (1 17) 4.2 1.7 19 27 (15 05) (21 25) (8 02) 1 58 (4.6) (2.1) 4 (7 51) (3 25) 9 40 7 58 (149) (4.1) 1.6 20 15 16 10 22 30 (8 19) 2 15 4.6 2.1 5 (8 39) 4 00 10 20 7 45 (141) 3.9 1.6 21 03 16 40 23 15 (8 01) 2 12 4.7 2.0 G (9 27) 5 00 1110 7 57 (143) 3.8 1.6 21 51 17 35 .... (8 08) ... 4.7 . . 7 (10 15) 6 00 00 8 09 2 09 3.8 1.9 22 40 18 20 11 50 (8 05) (1 35) 4.8 1.7 8 (11 04) 6 20 35 7 40 1 55 8.9 2.0 23 28 18 50 12 20 (7 46) (1 16) 4.8 1.7 9 (11 51) 7 10 1 15 7 42 1 47 3.9 2.0 .... 19 45 13 00 (7 54) (1 09) 4.8 1.7 10 15 8 00 2 10 7 45 155 4.0 2.0 (12 38) (20 20) 14 00 (7 42) (1 22) (4.8) 1.9 11 1 01 8 20 (2 35) 7 19 1 34 4.0 (2.0) (13 24) 20 50 14 10 (7 26) (0 46) 4.7 1.9 12 1 46 8 50 3 00 7 04 1 14 4.1 2.0 (14 08) 21 15 14 50 (7 07) (0 42) 4.7 2.0 13 2 30 9 40 3 50 7 10 120 4.2 2.0 (14 52) 22 00 15 30 (7 08) (0-38) 4.6 2.1 14 3 14 10 50 4 30 7 36 1 10 4.1 2.0 (15 35) 22 45 16 30 (7 10) (0 55) 4.5 2,1 15 3 57 1140 5 10 7 43 113 4.3 2.0 (16 19) 23 50 17 15 (7 31) (0 56) 4.4 2.3 16 4 41 .... 5 50 ... 109 .. 2.2 (17 04) 12 15 18 15 7 34 (1 11) 4.5 2.4 30 31 30 31 Half monthly sums 217 800 29 916 129.3 58.V 17 5 26 20 6 50 (7 16) 124 4.3 2.0 (17 50) 13 00 19 10 7 34 (1 20) 4.3 2.4 18 6 14 100 7 20 (7 10) (106) 4.2 2.0 (18 39) 14 00 20 10 7 46 (1 31) 4.5 2.3 * The values in parentheses in the columns of time and height are interpolated. A similar marking indicates the moon's lower transits and the lunitidal intervals obtained therefrouir which are not interpolated. 74 TIDES AND BENCH MARKS FIRST REDUCTION.— Continued. Date. Time of — Lunitidal Interval. Height of — Year Moon's Higti Low High Low High Low 1903. Transits. Water. Water. Water. Water. Water. Water. mo. d. h. m. July 19 7 05 (19 31) 20 7 59 (20 27) 21 8 56 (21 26) 22 9 57 (22 28) 23 10 59 (23 30) 24 12 00 25 (0 30) 13 00 26 (1 29) 13 57 27 (2 25) 14 52 28 (3 18) 15 44 29 (4 09) 16 34 30 (4 59) 17 23 31 (5 48) 18 12 Half monthly sums. . . . Aug. 1 (6 36) 19 00 2 (7 24) 19 49 3 (8 13) 20 37 4 (9.01) 21 25 5 (9 48) 22 12 6 (10 35) 22 59 7 (11 22) 23 44 8 (12 06) 9 29 (12 51) 10 1 13 (13 34) 11 1 56 (14 18) h. m. 2 00 15 00 3 00 15 55 4 00 16 50 5 00 17 40 6 00 18 30 7 00 19 35 8 00 20 25 8 50 21 20 10 00 22 25 10 50 23 15 11 45 00 12 40 1 00 13 40 2 00 14 30 3 00 15 35 3 50 16 30 4 55 17 15 5 20 18 20 7 20 19 50 8 00 20 00 8 00 20 00 8 10 20 30 8 50 20 55 9 10 21 35 h. m. h. m. 8 15 7 21) 21 10 7 55 9 10 7 29) 22 15 7 56 10 15 7 33) 23 15 7 54 11 00 7 34) 7 43 15 7 32) 12 00 7 31 50 7 30) 13 00 7 35 2 00 7 30) 14 00 7 25 2 50 7 21) 14 50 7 23 3 40 7 35) 15 50 7 33 4 30 7 32) 16 50 7 31 5 20 7 36) 17 45 6 30 7 26 19 00 7 41) 7 10 7 37 19 50 7 52) h. m. 8 10 21 00 9 15 22 00 10 00 23 00 10 50 23 50 11 25 1 15 13 00 2 10 13 50 2 00 14 00 O 20 14 15 3 00 14 50 3 00 15 15 29 203 981 48 54) 8 00 (8 11) 8 01 (8 17) 8 18 (8 14) 7 55 (8 32) 9 08 (9 15) 9 01 (8 38) 8 16 (7 54) 41 39) 37 21) 14 30) 00 21) 53 [1 15) 58 (1 12) 06 11) 11 7 7 7 7 17) 10 39) 11 48) 19 49) 03 47) 01 20) 00 31) 37 22) 38 29 27 673 34) 00 51) 11 47) 23 49) 25 37) 03 25) 11 28) 16 54) 51 24) 47 16) 04 57) feet. feet. 4.1 1.9 4.8 2.3 4.2 1.8 5.0 2.2 4.2 1.6 5.2 1.9 4.3 1.4 5.4 4.5 1.7 5.5 1.3 4.6 1.6 5.6 1.2 4.8 1.5 5.4 1.3 4.7 1.3 5.2 1.2 4.7 1.3 5.0 1.4 4.8 1.4 4.8 1.7 4.7 1.6 1.8 4.5 1.6 4.6 1.9 4.2 1.6 4.5 2.1 29 136.8 i9 49.3 4.0 1.8 4.6 2.2 3.9 1.8 4.5 2.1 3.8 1.8 4.6 2.1 3.9 1.9 4.7 2.1 4.0 1.9 4.8 4.0 2.1 4.7 1.8 3.9 2.0 4.6 1.7 4.1 2.0 4.7 1.9 4.2 2.0 4.7 1.9 4.2 2.0 4.5 1.8 4.2 1.9 4.6 2.0 THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 75 FIRST REDUCTION. — Continued. Date. Year Moon's 1903. Transits. mo. d. h. m. Aug. 12 2 40 (15 02) 13 3 25 (15 47) 14 4 11 (16 34) 15 4 59 (17 24) 16 5 50 (18 17) Half monthly sums. ... 17 6 44 (19 12) 18 7 41 (20 11) 19 8 41 (21 11) 20 9 41 (22 11) 21 10 41 (23 11) 22 11 40 23 (0 08) 12 36 24 (1 04) 13 30 25 (1 57) 14 23 26 (2 49) 15 14 27 (3 40) 16 05 28 (4 30) 16 54 29 (5 19) 17 44 30 (6 08) 18 33 31 (6 57) 19 21 Half monthly sums .... Sept. 1 (7 45) 20 08 2 (8 32) 20 55 3 (9 18) 21 41 Time of — High Low Water. Water. Lunitidal Interval. High Low Water. Water. Height of — High Low Water. Water. h. m. 9 55 22 00 10 20 22 30 11 00 23 00 12 30 35 13 15 h. m. 4 00 15 50 4 00 16 35 4 40 17 25 5 25 18 50 6 50 19 30 h. m. 7 15 (6 58) 6 55 (6 43) 6 49 (6 26) 7 31 (7 11) 7 25 1 30 14 15 2 35 15 15 3 30 16 10 4 30 17 10 5 30 18 00 6 20 19 00 7 20 19 50 8 15 20 40 9 10 21 25 10 10 22 20 10 55 23 00 11 50 10 13 00 1 10 14 00 2 15 14 45 7 40 20 50 8 35 21 45 9 35 22 40 10 35 23 50 11 35 30 12 30 1 20 13 25 2 00 14 30 3 00 15 20 3 50 16 25 4 30 17 10 5 30 18 10 6 10 19 15 7 15 20 25 8 15 21 30 326 864 (7 13) 7 31 (7 23) 7 34 (7 19) 7 29 (7 19) 7 29 (7 19) 7 19 (7 09) 7 20 (7 12) 7 14 (7 11) 7 10 (7 13) 7 02 (7 21) 7 06 (7 15) 6 55 (7 20) 3 00 15 45 4 00 16 50 5 10 17 25 9 10 22 10 10 30 23 10 10 45 23 35 h. m. 1 20 (0 48) 35 (0 48) 29 (0 51) 26 (1 26) 1 00 (1 13) 31 35 909 56 (1 38) 54 (1 34) 54 (1 29) 54 (1 39) 54 (1 19) 50 (1 12) 49 (0 56) 1 00 (1 03) 57 (1 01) 1 11 (0 50) 1 05 (1 00) 1 16 (0 51) 1 31 (1 07) 1 52 (1 18) 2 09 2ft 19 909 (1 25) 2 02 (1 58) 2 15 (1 27) 1 54 feet. 4.6 4.6 4.7 4.4 4.5 4.1 4.7 4.3 4.8 SI 135.9 4.3 5.0 4.4 5.1 4.4 5.3 4.6 5.5 4.7 5.4 4.8 5.4 4.8 5.2 4.9 5.1 5.0 4.8 4.9 4.5 4.8 4.4 4.8 4.3 4.8 4.1 4.6 4.0 4.6 29 138.5 4.1 4.7 4.1 4.5 4.0 4.8 feet. 2.1 2.3 2.1 2.4 1.9 2.1 1.9 2.3 2.0 2.4 31 63.3 2.1 2.4 1.9 2.3 1.7 2.1 1.7 1.9 1.4 1.5 1.2 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.6 1.5 1.9 1.7 2.1 1.9 2.3 2.0 2.3 2.1 2.4 29 50.8 2.2 2.4 2.0 2.1 2.0 2.4 ?6 TIDES AND BENCH MARKS FIRST REDUCTION.— Continued. Date. Yeai' Moon's 1903. Transits. mo. d. h. m. Sept. 4 (10 04) 22 26 5 (10 48) 23 10 6 (11 32) 23 54 (12 16) 8 39 (13 01) 9 1 23 (13 46) 10 2 09 (14 33) 11 2 57 (15 22) 12 3 47 (16 12) 13 4 39 (17 06) 14 5 34 (18 02) 15 6 30 (18 59) 16 7 28 (19 57) Half monthly sums .... 17 8 26 (20 55) 18 9 24 (21 52) 19 10 20 (22 48) 20 11 15 (23 42) 21 12 08 22 (0 35) 13 01 23 (1 27) 13 53 24 (2 18) 14 44 25 (3 09) 15 35 26 (4 00) IG 25 27 (4 50) 17 14 Time of — Higti Low Water. Water. Lunitidal Interval. High Low Water. Water. Height of — High Low Water. Water. h. m. 8 14 (S 16) h. m. 56) feet. 4.3 4.9 feet. 2.1 8 24 (8 12) 2 54 02) 4.5 5.1 2.2 2.2 8 05 (7 48) 1 00 43) 4.7 5.2 2.4 2.4 7 56 (7 34) 46 34) 5.0 5.2 2.5 2.4 7 46 (7 29) 21 24) 5.1 5.1 2.4 2.4 7 37 (7 24) 05 29) 4.7 4.7 2.4 2.0 7 41 (7 27) 1 11 37) 5.1 5.3 2.1 3.0 7 43 (7 28) 1 08 43) (5.1) (4.6) (2.1) (2.4) 7 43 (7 33) 1 13 48) (4.8) (4.3) (2.1) (2.2) 7 41 1 11 44) (4.7) (1.9) (2.2) (7 29) 7 36 (1 06 43) (4.1) (4.7) (1.8) (2.0) (7 28) 7 30 1 00 41) (4.2) 4.7 1.6 1.9 (7 26) 7 27 (1 02 23) 4.0 (4.9) 31 145.2 1.7 1.9 31 226 908 31 35 825 31 67.4 (7 13) 7 24 1 44 30) 4.3 5.0 1.7 1.8 (7 25) 7 36 1 16 33) 4.7 5.3 1.6 1.8 (7 38) 7 50 30 5.0 5.3 1.5 (7 37) 7 45 (1 27) 25 (5.0) (5.2) (1.6) (1.4) (7 33) 7 42 (1 28) 22 (5.1) 5.1 (1.5) (1.4) (7 35) 7 29 25) 24 5.3 5.1 1.6 1.7 (7 33) 7 07 1 03) 07 5.5 5.0 1.8 2.0 (7 22) 7 16 42) 16 5.3 4.5 1.8 1.9 (7 31) 7 2.5 01) 35 4.9 4.2 1.8 2.0 (7 30) 7 20 1 15) 45 4.7 4.0 1.9 2.1 (7 35) 10) 46 4.6 2.0 2.2 h. m. 5 5.5 18 20 6 50 19 00 7 15 19 20 7 50 19 50 8 25 20 30 9 00 21 10 9 50 22 00 (10 40) (22 50) (11 30) (23 45) (12 20) (0 35) (13 10) (1 30) 14 00 2 25 (14 55) h. m. 12 00 20 12 50 1 10 13 15 1 40 13 50 2 00 14 25 2 28 15 15 3 20 16 10 (4 05) (17 05) (5 00) (18 00) (5 50) (18 50) (6 40) (19 45) 7 30 20 40 8 30 21 20 3 10 9 10 15 50 22 25 4 20 10 40 17 00 23 25 5 30 11 50 18 10 (6 25) (0 15) (19 00) (12 40) (7 15) (1 10) 19 50 (13 30) 8 10 2 00 20 80 14 25 9 00 2 30 21 00 15 00 9 40 3 00 22 00 16 00 10 40 4 10 23 00 17 10 11 30 5 15 23 45 IS 10 G 00 12 25 19 00 GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XIV THE BAHAMA ISLANDS FIRST REDUCTION. — Continued. Date. Year Moon's 1903. Transits. mo. d. h. m. Sept. 28 (5 39) 18 03 29 (6 26) 18 50 30 (7 13) 19 36 Half monthly sums .... Oct. 1 (7 59) 20 22 2 (8 44) 21 06 3 (9 28) 21 50 4 (10 12) 22 34 5 (10 57) 23 19 6 (11 42) 7 06 (12 29) 8 53 (13 18) 9 1 43 (14 09) 10 2 35 (15 02) 11 3 30 (15 58) 12 4 26 (16 54) 13 5 22 (17 51) 14 19 (18 47) 15 7 15 (19 43) 16 8 10 (20 37) Half monthly sums. . . . 17 9 04 (21 30) 18 9 56 (22 22) 19 10 48 (23 14) 20 11 40 Time of — High Low- Water. Water. Lunitidal Interval. High Low Water. Water. Height of — High Low Water. Water. h. m. 45 13 25 1 50 14 20 2 35 15 15 h. m. 6 40 20 00 7 40 20 45 8 50 21 50 3 25 16 15 4 25 17 00 5 15 (17 40) 5 40 18 15 25 19 00 7 10 19 20 7 50 19 50 8 30 20 50 9 15 21 30 10 10 22 00 10 .45 22 45 11 25 00 12 40 1 10 13 50 2 15 14 50 3 00 15 50 9 50 22 25 10 50 23 20 (11 30) 23 50 12 10 20 13 00 1 00 13 35 1 30 14 00 2 10 14 40 2 35 15 85 3 35 10 35 4 20 17 15 (5 15) 18 15 6 15 19 15 7 10 20 25 8 25 21 00 9 20 22 10 (4 00) 16 50 (4 55) 17 40 (5 501 18 40 (6 45) 19 20 10 40 (22 50) 11 20 23 35 12 25 25 13 25 h. m. 7 31 (7 46) 7 47 (7 54) 7 45 (8 02) 190 851 7 49 (8 16) 8 03 (8 16) 8 09 (8 12) 7 50 (8 03) 7 51 (8 03) 7 51 (7 38) 7 44 (7 21) 7 37 (7 32) 7 32 (7 21) 7 35 (6 58) 7 15 (6 47) 6 59 (7 06) 7 18 (7 19) 7 31 (7 28) 7 35 (7 17) 7 40 41 231 898 (7 23) 7 46 (7 25) 7 44 (7 28) 7 52 (7 31) 7 40 h. m. (1 01) 1 57 (1 14) 1 55 (1 37) 2 14 27 26 703 (1 51) 2 03 (2 06) 2 14 (2 02) 2 00 (1 58) 1 46 (2 03) 1 41 (1 53) 1 24 (1 31) 1 17 (1 22) 52 (1 26) 1 00 (1 33) 50 (1 17) 49 (1 21) 53 (1 24) 51 (1 38) 1 10 (1 17) 1 10 (1 33) 31 33 85.5 1 36 (1 20) 1 24 (1 13) 1 37 (1 11) 1 45 feet. 4.0 4.4 3.9 4.4 3.9 4.4 27 138.1 3.9 4.4 4.1 4.5 4.3 (4.8) 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.7 5.0 4.8 5.1 4.7 5.1 4.7 5.4 4.7 5.4 4.7 5.3 4.4 4.8 4.0 4.5 4.0 4.8 4.5 4.9 4.6 4.9 31 145.4 (5.0) 5.0 (5.1) 4.9 (5.2) 4.9 (5.3) 4.9 feet. 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.2 2.3 27 60.6 2.2 2.3 2.1 2.2 (2.2) 2.4 2.3 2.1 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.1 2.1 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.3 2.2 2.4 2.2 2.2 (1.9) 2.0 1.6 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.0 2.0 1.9 1.9 31 65.1 1.8 (1.7) 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.7 78 TIDES AND BENCH MARKS FIRST REDUCTION. — Continued. Date. Year Moon's 1903. Transits. d. h. m. 21 (0 05) 12 31 22 (0 57) 13 23 23 (1 48) 14 14 24 (2 39) 15 05 25 (3 30) 15 54 26 (4 19) 16 43 27 (5 06) 17 30 28 (5 53) 18 16 29 (6 38) 19 00 30 (7 22) 19 44 31 (8 06) 20 28 Time of — High Low Water. Water. Lunitidal Interval. High Low Water. Water. Height of — High Low Water. Water. mo Oct. h. m. (7 45) 20 00 8 40 20 50 9 20 21 40 10 20 22 30 11 00 23 15 11 40 00 12 25 1 00 13 20 1 50 14 30 3 00 15 10 3 40 16 00 h. m. (1 15) 14 00 2 00 15 00 2 50 15 50 3 40 16 40 4 25 17 25 5 25 18 10 6 00 19 00 7 00 19 50 8 25 20 50 9 00 21 45 10 00 22 25 Half monthly sums. h. m. (7 40) 7 29 (7 43) 7 27 (7 32) 7 26 (7 41) 7 25 (7 30) 7 21 (7 21) 7 17 (7 19) 7 30 (7 27) 7 34 (7 52) 8 00 (7 48) 7 56 (7 54) 29 204 961 h. m. (1 10) 1 29 (1 03) 1 37 (1 02) 1 36 (1 01) 1 35 (0 55) 1 31 (1 06) 1 27 (0 54) 1 30 (1 07) 1 34 (1 47) 1 50 (1 38) 2 01 (1 54) 1 57 29 28 830 feet. (5.4) 4.7 5.3 4.5 5.2 4.3 5.0 4.0 4.5 3.7 4.3 3.6 4.1 3.7 4.1 3.8 4.1 3.8 4.1 3.9 4.0 29 130.4 feet. (1.6) 1.7 1.6 1.8 1.8 2.0 1.9 2.0 1.9 1.9 1.9 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.2 2.2 2.3 2.1 2.1 2.0 2.1 1.8 29 64.6 Nov. 1 (8 50) 4 35 10 50 8 07 (2 00) 3.9 1.8 21 12 16 50 22 50 (8 00) 1 38 4.0 1.7 2 (9 35) 5 15 1135 8 03 (2 00) 4.3 1.8 21 58 17 25 23 35 (7 50) 1 37 4.1 1.5 3 (10 22) 5 50 .... T 52 ... 4.4 22 46 18 00 12 25 (7 38) (2 03) 4.0 1.6 4 (11 10) 6 30 00 7 44 1 14 4.8 1.5 23 35 19 00 13 00 (7 50) (1 50) 4.4 1.8 5 7 10 45 7 35 110 5.0 1.6 (12 01) 19 25 13 35 (7 24) (1 34) 4.3 1.7 6 28 (8 00) (130) 7 32 102 (5.0) (1.5) (12 55) 20 10 14 25 (7 15) (1 30) 4.3 1.7 7 123 8 45 2 10 7 22 47 5.0 1.4 (13 51) 21 00 15 15 (7 09) (1 24) 4.0 1.5 8 2 20 9 30 3 10 7 10 50 4.9 1.3 (14 48) 22 00 16 15 (7 12) (1 27) 3.9 1.5 9 3 18 10 25 4 00 7 07 42 4.9 1.5 (15 46) 23 00 17 00 (7 14) (1 14) 4.0 1.5 10 4 15 11 20 5 00 7 05 45 4.8 1.6 (16 44) .... 18 00 ... (1 16) . . 17 11 5 11 00 5 45 (7 16) 34 4.0 1.6 (17 39) 12 15 19 00 7 04 (1 21) 4.6 1.6 12 6 06 100 7 00 (7 21) 54 4.1 1.7 (18 33) 13 20 20 00 7 14 (1 27) 4.4 1.5 13 6 59 2 15 8 15 (7 42) 116 4.1 1.7 (19 25) 14 30 21 00 7 31 (1 35) 4.3 1.5 THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 79 FIRST REDUCTION. — Continued. Date. Year 1903. Moon's Transits. Time of — High Low Water. Water. Lunitidal Interval. High Low Water. Water. Height of — High Low Water. Water. mo. d. h. m. h. Nov. 14 7 50 3 (20 16) 15 15 8 41 4 (21 06) 16 25 16 9 31 5 10 (21 56) 17 25 m. 20 15 li. m. 9 30 22 00 10 30 22 50 11 30 23 40 h. m. (7 55) 7 35 (7 59) 7 44 (8 04) 7 54 h. m. 1 40 (1 44) 1 49 (1 44) 1 59 (1 44) feet. 4.3 4.3 4.6 4.3 4.8 4.3 Half monthly sums. Dec. 1 (8 59) 4 35 11 00 21 23 17 00 23 00 2 (9 48) 5 20 .... 22 15 17 35 12 00 3 (10 41) 6 20 00 23 09 18 25 13 00 4 (11 38) 7 00 35 .... 19 00 13 30 5 06 7 50 1 20 (12 36) 20 00 14 25 6 1 06 8 25 2 10 (13 36) 20 50 15 00 27 191 936 8 00 (8 01) 7 57 (7 47) 8 05 (7 44) 7 51 (7 22) 7 44 (7 24) 7 19 (7 14) 27 24 987 (2 01) 1 37 (2 12) 1 45 (2 19) 1 26 (1 52) 1 14 (1 49) 1 04 (1 24) 27 114.5 4.5 3.9 4.6 4.0 4.8 3.9 5.0 4.0 5.0 4.0 5.0 4.0 feet. . 1.7 1.4 1.7 1.4 1.6 1.5 31 . 321 sn.s 3] 2.S 950 31 136.1 31 49.1 17 10 (22 22 47) 6 18 00 10 12 20 (8 7 04) 48 58 5.0 4.4 1.7 18 11 (23 12 38) 7 19 00 00 13 30 10 (8 7 13) 48 43) 58 5.0 4.1 1.5 1.6 19 12 03 7 19 30 45 1 13 15 50 (7 7 52) 42 37) 47 5.0 4.1 1.4 1.6 20 . ... (0 12 29) 54 8 20 25 45 1 14 50 40 (7 7 56) 51 21) 40 5.0 3.9 1.6 1.7 21 .... (1 13 20) 45 9 21 00 00 2 15 25 15 (7 7 40) 15 05) 30 4.7 3.9 1.5 1.7 22 . ... (2 14 10) 34 9 22 45 00 3 16 15 15 (7 7 35) 26 05) 41 4.8 3.9 1.7 1.9 23 . ... (2 15 59) 22 10 22 25 50 3 16 50 40 (7 7 26) 28 51) 18 4.6 3.8 1.9 2.0 24 • . ... (3 16 46) 09 11 23 GO 30 4 17 45 40 (7 7 14) 21 59) 31 4.4 3.6 2.0 2.0 25 .... (4 16 32) 54 11 40 5 18 20 20 (7 08) 48) 26 4.2 2.0 2.0 26 .... (5 17 16) 38 12 25 30 6 19 15 00 7 (7 31 14) 59) 22 3.8 4.3 2.2 2.1 27 .... (6 18 00) 22 1 13 20 30 7 20 30 00 7 (7 42 30) 30) 38 3.9 4.0 2.3 2.0 28 .... (6 43) 19 05 2 14 10 30 8 20 20 40 7 (7 48 47) 37) 35 3.8 3.9 2.1 1.9 29 .... (7 19 27) 49 3 15 00 00 9 21 45 25 7 (7 55 33) 18) 36 4.2 4.0 2.2 1.8 30 .... (8 20 12) 35 3 16 40 00 10 22 00 15 7 51 (7 48) 48) 40 4.2 4.0 2.0 1.7 27 50.1 1.9 1.5 1.7 1.4 1.4 1.2 1.5 1.1 1.1 0.9 1.1 80 TIDES AND BENCH MARKS FIRST REDUCTION. — Continued. Date. Time of — Lunitidal Interval. Height of — Year Moon's Higli Low Higti Low High Low 1903. Transits. Water. Water. Water. Water. Water. Water. mo. d. h. m. Dec. 7 2 06 (14 35) 8 3 05 (15 33) 9 4 02 (16 29) 10 4 56 (17 22) 11 5 48 (18 14) 12 6 39 (19 04) 13 7 28 (19 53) 14 8 18 (20 42) 15 9 07 (21 32) 16 9 57 (22 22) Half monthly sums. . . . 17 10 47 (23 12) 18 11 37 19 (0 02) 12 27 20 (0 52) 13 16 21 (1 40) 14 03 22 (2 26) 14 49 23 (3 12) 15 34 24 (3 55) 16 17 25 (4 38) 17 00 26 (5 21) 17 43 27 (6 05) 18 27 28 (6 49) 19 12 29 (7 36) 20 01 30 (8 26) 20 53 31 (9 20) 21 48 h. m. h. m. 9 20 3 00 (21 40) (15 55) 10 10 (3 50) 22 35 16 50 11 00 4 40 (23 40) 18 00 11 50 (5 35) 19 00 50 6 30 13 00 19 50 2 00 8 00 14 00 21 00 3 00 9 15 15 10 21 45 (3 55) (10 15) (16 10) 22 35 4 50 11 15 17 10 (23 15) (5 40) 17 50 (12 10) 6 30 18 45 7 10 19 10 8 10 20 00 8 30 20 50 9 15 21 35 10 00 22 15 10 30 (22 55) (11 10) (23 35) (11 55) (0 20) (12 35) 1 00 13 20 2 15 (14 20) 3 10 15 15 4 00 16 10 5 00 17 18 00 13 00 50 14 00 1 35 14 30 2 10 15 00 2 45 15 40 3 30 16 20 4 00 17 10 (4 45) (17 45) (5 30) (18 25) (6 15) 19 00 7 00 19 45 (8 15) 20 45 9 30 21 40 10 30 22 40 11 35 23 30 14 05) 05 02) 58 11) 7 6 7 6 54 7 28) 7 12 7 46) 7 21 7 56) 7 42 8 02) 7 52 8 08) 8 03 8 08) 7 53 31 233 808 8 08) 7 58 7 58) 7 33 8 08) 7 33 7 38) 7 34 35) 32 34) 26 18) 21 15) 18 17) Half monthly sums. 7 20 7 14) 7 17 7 15) 7 48 31) 58 39) 59 44) 8 07 7 58) 29 306 896 h. m. 54 1 20) 45 1 17) 38 1 31) 39 1 38) 42 2 13 30 30 993 36) 21 56) 47 52) 57 53) 08 43) 38) 13 38) 23 33) 03 18) 44 05) 37 04) 31 48) 1 36 50) 1 28 52) 1 25 54) 1 17 55) 18 26) 33 54) 39 04) 47 15) 42 80 30 930 feet. 5.1 (4.1) 5.0 4.2 4.9 (4.2) 4.6 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.0 4.4 3.9 (4.5) (3.9) 4.5 3.9 (4.6) 3.9 31 135 4.7 3.9 4.7 3.8 4.6 3.5 4.5 3.6 4.3 3.5 4.3 3.6 4.2 (3.5) (4.1) (3.6) (4.0) (3.7) (3.8) 3.6 3.6 3.8 (3.6) 3.9 3.5 4.1 3.6 4.3 3.5 ■^9 113.4 feet. 1.0 (1.2) (1.2) 1.3 1.5 1.5 (1.5) 1.3 1.6 1.3 1.7 1.3 1.6 1.2 (1.6) 1.2 1.6 (1.2) (1.6) 30 41.3 1.3 1.5 *•- 1.4 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.2 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.6 (1.9) (1.8) (2.0) (1.9) (2.0) 1.7 1.9 1.5 (1.8) 1.5 1.8 1.3 1.7 1.1 1.5 1.0 30 45.9 THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 81 \ FIRST REDUCTION.— Continued. Date. Time of^ Lunitidal Interval. Height of — Year Moon's High Low- High Low High Low 1904. Transits. Water. Water. Water. Water. Water. Water. mo. d. h. m. h. m. h. m. Jan. 1 (10 17) 5 45 .... 22 47 17 50 12 25 2 (11 17) 6 40 15 2.3 48 18 45 13 15 3 7 25 1 00 (12 18) 19 35 14 10 4 49 8 15 2 00 (13 19) 20 30 15 00 5 1 49 9 20 2 40 (14 18) 21 30 15 45 G 2 47 9 50 3 40 (15 15) 22 30 16 30 7 3 42 10 50 4 30 (16 09) 23 35 17 15 8 4 35 11 45 5 35 (17 01) .... 18 20 9 5 26 30 6 30 (17 51) 12 40 19 10 10 6 16 1 20 7 45 (18 40) 13 40 20 00 11 7 05 2 30 8 50 (19 30) 14 45 21 00 12 7 54 3 30 10 00 (20 19) 15 50 21 55 13 , . 8 44 4 20 11 10 • (21 09) 16 50 22 40 14 9 34 5 10 12 00 (21 58) 17 15 23 45 15 10 23 6 00 .... (22 47) 18 15 12 25 16 11 12 6 50 20 (23 36) 19 00 13 20 Half monthly sums 17 11 59 7 30 50 .... 19 45 13 35 18 (0 23) 8 10 1 30 12 46 20 10 14 25 19 (1 08 » 8 50 2 15 13 31 21 00 15 15 20 (1 53) 9 30 3 10 14 14 21 35 15 50 21 (2 36) 9 55 3 40 14 57 22 20 16 15 22 (3 19) 10 30 4 30 15 40 22 50 16 45 23 (4 01) 11 00 4 50 16 23 23 35 17 10 24 (4 45) . 11 35 6 00 17 07 .... 18 00 h. m. 32) 53 28) 37 17) 26 11) 7 31 12) 03 15) 08 26) 10 7 29) 7 14 7 29) 7 24 7 50) 7 40 8 00) 7 56 8 01) 8 06 8 01) 7 41 8 02) 7 52 8 03) 7 48 31 223 7fi3 54) 46 47) 24 42) 29 37) 21 7 19) 7 23 7 11) 7 10 6 59) 7 12 6 50) h. m. (2 08) feet. 4.5 3.8 feet. 1.4 1 28 (1 58) 4.9 3.9 1.0 1.3 1 12 (1 52) 5.0 4.2 0.9 1.2 1 11 (1 41) 5.2 4.0 0.9 1.1 51 (1 27) 5.0 4.0 0.9 1.0 53 (1 15) 4.8 4.1 1.0 0.9 48 (1 06) 4.6 4.4 1.1 1.2 1 00 (1 19) 4.5 1.6 1.3 1 04 (1 19) 4.3 4.2 1.6 1.3 1 29 (1 20) 4.2 3.7 1.6 1.1 1 45 (1 30) 4.2 3.7 1.6 1.2 2 06 (1 36) 4.3 3.6 1.6 1.2 2 26 (1 31) 4.3 3.7 1.5 1.3 2 26 (1 47) 4.3 3.4 1.5 1.1 2 02 4.2 3.3 1.2 (1 33) 2 08 4.3 3.5 31 130.1 1.1 1.4 30 as 791 80 37.1 (1 14) 1 36 4.3 3.6 1.1 1.3 (1 07) 1 39 4.4 3.5 1.3 1.3 (1 07) 1 44 4.3 3.4 1.3 1.4 (1 17) 1 36 3.9 3.4 1.2 1.3 (1 04) 1 18 4.2 3.8 1.4 1.6 (] 11) 1 05 4.1 3.7 1.8 1.6 (0 49) 47 3.9 3.8 1.8 1.5 (1 15) 53 3.6 1.7 1.4 82 TIDES AND BENCH MARKS FIRST REDUCTION. — Continued. Date. Year Moon's 1904. Transits. mo. d. li. m. Jan. 25 (5 30) 17 53 26 (6 16) 18 41 27 (7 07) 19 33 28 (8 00) 20 28 29 (8 57) 21 26 30 (9 56) 22 27 31 (10 58) 23 28 Time of — High Low Water. Water. Lunitidal Interval. High Low Water. Water. Height of — - High Low Water. Water. h. m. 30 12 25 1 30 13 25 2 15 14 15 3 15 (15 20) 4 15 16 30 5 10 17 10 6 00 18 20 h. m. 6 50 19 00 7 45 19 50 8 40 20 35 (9 40) 21 35 10 45 22 25 11 30 23 30 12 35 Half monthly sums. Feb. 1 (11 58) 2 28 (12 58) 3 1 27 (13 55) 4 2 23 (14 50) 5 3 17 (15 43) 6 4 09 (16 35) 7 5 00 (17 26) 8 5 51 (18 16) 9 6 41 (19 06) 10 7 31 (19 56) 11 8 20 (20 45) 12 9 09 (21 33) 13 9 56 (22 20) 14 10 43 (23 06) 15 11 28 (23 51) 16 12 13 Half monthly sums. . . . 7 00 19 20 7 50 (20 15) 8 50 21 10 9 35 22 10 10 20 23 00 11 10 00 12 00 1 00 13 15 2 00 14 25 3 00 15 25 (4 00) 16 20 5 00 17 15 5 50 18 00 6 30 (18 40) (7 05) (19 20) (7 35) 20 00 25 13 40 1 20 (14 25) (2 20) 15 15 3 20 15 50 4 15 16 40 5 10 17 35 6 10 18 30 7 20 19 25 8 25 20 25 20 (21 20) 10 30 22 13 11 35 23 20 12 10 00 12 33 (0 40) 13 30 (1 20) (14 00) 31 35.8 GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XV Fig. 1. — \ iKw uF lsuat la.muek a.\u hoe gauge house, nassau Fig. 2. — view of bench mark no. 1 and monument, nassau VIEWS ILLUSTRATING WORK ON TIDES AND BENCH MARKS THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 83 FIRST REDUCTION. — Continued. Time of — High Low Water. Water. Lunitidal Interval. High Low Water. Water. Height of — High Low Water. Water. (7 40) 7 35 (7 51) 8 07 h. m. (1 26) 1 29 (1 13) 1 21 (1 15) 58 (0 57) 55 (0 53) 50 (1 12) 49 (1 10) 35 (0 59) 43 (1 06) 48 (1 30) 51 (1 32) 1 12 (1 22) 1 03 (1 18) 25 14 807 54 (1 10) 1 11 (1 13) 1 00 (1 07) 1 05 (1 03) 1 02 (0 45) 1 19 (0 52) 1 21 (0 51) 1 20 (1 00) 1 35 (1 10) 1 40 (1 11) 2 07 (1 28) feet. 4.3 3.9 4.0 3.7 3.9 3.9 4.0 4.0 3.8 4.0 3.6 3.8 3.4 3.8 3.5 4.0 (3.3) (4.2) 3.6 4.4 3.7 4.5 (4.1) (4.7) 4.4 2.5 98.5 4.9 4.5 4.8 4.7 4.9 4.9 4.7 4.7 4.4 4.8 4.1 4.6 4.0 4.5 3.9 4.4 3.8 4.1 3.4 4.1 3.6 feet. 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.5 1.7 1.4 1.7 1.4 1.5 1.3 1.7 1.5 1.7 (1.3) 1.7 1.4 1.6 1.1 (1.3) (1.0) (1.0) 25 35.4 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.1 (1.4) 1.3 (1.6) 1.4 1.8 1.7 1.9 1.7 1.9 1.6 1.8 1.8 84 TIDES AND BENCH MARKS FIRST REDUCTION.— Continued. Date. Year 1904. Moon's Transits. Time of — High Low Water. Water. Lunitidal Interval. High Low Water. Water. Height of — High Low Water. Water. mo. d. h. m. h. m. Mar. 12 8 40 4 25 (21 03) 16 50 13 9 26 5 20 (21 48) 17 35 14 10 10 5 50 (22 32) 18 00 15 10 54 6 25 (23 10) 19 00 16 11 37 7 30 (23 58) 19 25 h. m. 10 40 22 30 11 30 23 25 12 10 10 12 35 1 00 13 35 Apr. 1 32 7 50 1 50 . (12 59) 20 25 14 00 2 1 26 8 40 2 50 (13 53) 21 10 14 45 3 2 20 9 30 3 40 (14 47) 22 10 15 40 17 7 45 1 40 12 20 19 50 13 35 18 (0 42) 8 00 (2 25) 13 04 20 40 14 10 19 (1 26) 9 10 3 10 13 48 21 10 15 00 20 (2 11) 9 20 3 30 14 34 21 45 15 25 21 (2 58) 10 00 4 00 15 22 22 25 16 00 oo (3 16 47) 13 10 23 40 15 5 00 16 35 23 (4 39) 11 25 6 00 17 06 17 25 24 (5 33) 20 6 35 18 00 12 20 18 30 25 (6 28) 1 10 7 50 18 56 13 30 19 30 26 (7 25) 2 10 8 50 19 54 14 50 20 40 27 (8 22) 3 25 9 50 20 50 16 00 21 50 28 (9 19) 4 25 10 40 21 47 16 50 22 45 29 (10 15) 5 20 11 30 22 42 17 50 30 (11 10) 6 10 00 23 38 18 35 12 30 31 7 10 50 (12 05) 19 35 13 15 Half monthlY sums 31 225 703 h. m. 8 08) 8 10 8 17) 8 09 8 02) 7 50 7 53) 8 06 8 14) 7 48 47) 30 18) 36 44) 22 09) 11 02) 03 6 53) 7 02 6 46) 7 14 8 47) 7 10 7 02) 7 14 7 25) 7 31 7 38) h. m. feet. feet. 2 00 4.2 2.0 (1 27) 3.8 1.8 2 04 4.3 1.8 (1 37) 3.9 4.3 1.8 2 00 4.0 1.8 (1 38) 4.1 1.6 1 41 3.9 1.4 (1 44) 4.2 1.4 1 58 4.1 1.0 31 31 693 ai 133.6 31 44.3 (1 42) 4.0 1.3 1 15 4.0 1.3 (1 43) 4.0 (1.4) 1 06 4.4 1.4 (1 44) 4.1 1.6 1 12 4.5 1.5 (1 19) 4.0 1.7 51 4.4 1.4 (1 02) 4.0 1.7 38 4.3 1.4 (1 13) 3.7 1.6 22 4.3 1.4 (1 21) 3.6 1.7 19 1.4 (1 02) 4.3 1.7 30 3.5 1.5 (1 22) 4.4 1.7 34 3.6 1.6 (1 25) 4.4 1.8 46 3.8 1.6 (1 28) 4.5 1.7 1 00 4.0 1.6 (1 21) 4.9 1.7 58 4.5 1.5 (1 15) 4.9 5.0 1.4 1 18 5.0 1.3 (1 20) 4.9 1.1 1 12 4.7 1.0 (1 10) 4.9 0.7 29 21 688 29 124.6 29 42.7 1 18 4.5 0.9 (1 01) 5.0 0.8 1 24 4.3 1.1 (0 52) 4.9 0.8 1 20 4.1 1.1 (0 53) 4.7 1.0 THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 85 FIRST REDUCTION. — Continued. Date. Time of^ Lunitidal Interval. Height of — Year Moon's High Low High Low High Low 1904. Transits. Water. Water. Water. Water. Water. Water. mo. d. h. m. Apr. 4 3 13 (15 40) 5 4 06 (16 32) 6 4 57 (17 22) 7 5 47 (18 11) 8 6 35 (18 59) 9 7 22 (19 44) 10 8 07 (20 29) 11 8 51 (21 12) 12 9 34 (21 55) 13 10 17 (22 39) 14 11 00 (23 23) 15 11 45 16 (0 08) 12 31 Half monthly sums. . . . 17 (0 55) 13 19 18 (1 44) 14 10 19 (2 36) 15 02 20 (3 29) 15 56 21 (4 24) 16 52 22 (5 20) 17 48 23 (6 15) 18 43 24 (7 10) 19 38 25 (8 05) 20 32 26 (8 58) 21 25 27 (9 52) 22 18 h. m. 10 15 22 50 11 20 23 40 12 00 35 13 00 1 30 14 15 2 40 15 10 3 25 16 10 4 20 16 45 5 10 17 40 5 50 18 20 6 30 18 50 7 00 19 30 7 40 20 15 4 25 16 15 5 25 17 25 6 25 18 10 7 10 19 10 8 10 20 10 9 00 21 00 9 50 22 10 10 35 22 45 11 10 23 40 12 00 25 12 30 1 00 13 10 1 40 13 35 8 20 2 25 20 45 14 20 9 00 3 15 21 30 15 00 9 45 3 50 22 10 15 30 (10 35) 4 40 (23 05) (16 20) 11 30 (5 40) 17 15 00 6 35 12 30 18 20 1 10 7 30 13 25 19 40 2 00 8 25 (14 25) (20 35) (3 00) (9 15) (15 30) (21 25) (4 00) (10 10) 16 35 22 20 (5 00) 11 00 (17 35) 23 50 h. m. 7 02 7 10) 7 14 7 08) 7 03 7 13) 7 13 7 19) 7 40 7 41) 7 48 7 41) 8 03 7 51) 7 54 7 58) 8 06 7 55) 8 03 7 51) 7 50 7 37) 7 45 7 32) 7 44 31 SO 849 7 25) 7 26 7 16> 7 20 7 09) 7 08 7 00) 7 09 7 06) 7 08 7 10) 7 22 7 10) 7 17 7 15) 7 22 7 25) 7 28 7 37) 7 35 7 43) h. m. 1 12 (0 35) 1 19 (0 53) 1 28 (0 48) 1 23 (0 59) 1 35 (1 11) 1 38 (1 16) 1 43 (1 41) 1 44 (1 33) 1 36 (1 45) 1 43 (1 46) 1 30 (1 37) 1 25 (1 32) 1 04 31 26 1004 (1 30) 1 01 (1 31) 50 (1 14) 28 (1 lit 24 (1 16) 23 (1 15) 32 (1 15) 57 (1 15) 57 (1 10) 53 (1 12) 55 (1 08) 1 32 feet. 3.9 4.4 3.7 4.2 3.5 4.2 3.7 4.2 3.6 4.1 3.7 4.1 3.6 3.9 3.8 4.0 4.0 4.1 4.4 4.2 4.5 4.1 4.5 4.0 4.7 31 138.6 4.1 4.8 4.3 4.9 4.1 4.8 (3.8) (4.6) 4.0 4.7 3.S 4.6 3.8 4.4 (4.0) (4.3) (4.4) (4.3) 4.6 (4.4) (4.9) feet. 1.3 1.3 1.5 1.4 1.6 1.6 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 2.0 2.0 1.9 l.S 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.7 1.9 1.7 1.7 1.4 1.6 1.5 31 48.1 1.7 1.4 1.7 1.6 1.8 1.5 1.8 (1.5) (1.7) 1.7 1.8 1.7 1.7 1.6 1.5 (1.5) (1.4) (1.5) (1.3) 1.4 1.2 1.4 86 TIDES AND BENCH MARKS FIRST REDUCTION. — ^Continued. Date. Time of — Lui Qitidal Interval. Height of — Year Moon's High Low High Low High Low 1904. Transits. Water. Water. Water. Water. Water. Water. mo. d. h. m. h. m. h. m. h. m. h. m. feet. feet. Apr. 28 (10 45) 6 00 7 42 4.5 23 11 18 35 12 00 (7 50) (1 15) 5.1 1.1 29 (11 38) 6 50 35 7 39 1 24 4.5 1.4 19 15 12 40 (7 37) (1 02) 5.2 1.1 30 05 7 35 1 30 7 30 1 25 4.4 1.3 (12 32) sums 20 10 13 35 (7 38) 27 . . 189 633 (1 03) 5.2 1.1 Half monthly 27 18 658 27 120.5 27 40.4 May 1 59 8 25 2 00 7 26 1 01 4.2 1.3 (13 26) 20 50 14 25 (7 24) (0 59) 5.2 1.2 2 1 52 9 00 3 10 7 08 1 18 4.2 1.5 (14 19) (21 35) (15 05) (7 16) (0 46) (5.0) (1.4) 3 2 46 10 00 (4 05) 7 14 1 19 4.1 (1.6) (15 12) 22 20 15 50 (7 08) (0 38) 4.8 1.6 4 3 37 10 50 5 00 7 13 1 33 3.8 1.7 (16 03) (23 10) 17 00 (7 07) (0 57) (4.6) 1.7 5 4 27 (16 52) 11 35 (5 50) 17 40 7 08 1 23 (0 48) 3.6 (1.8) 1.9 6 5 15 (17 39) 00 12 40 6 35 18 30 (7 7 08) 25 1 20 (0 51) 4.3 3.6 1.9 2.0 7 6 02 50 7 30 (7 11) 1 28 4.3 2.0 (18 24) 13 45 19 45 7 43 (1 21) 3.9 2.2 8 6 46 (19 08) 1 35 14 30 8 25 20 50 (7 7 11) 44 1 39 (1 42) 4.2 3.8 1.9 2.1 9 7 29 2 40 8 50 (7 32) 1 21 4.1 2.0 (19 51) 15 30 21 25 8 01 (1 34) 4.0 2.1 10 8 12 3 40 9 40 (7 49) 1 28 4.0 1.0 (20 34) 16 20 22 25 8 08 (1 51) 4.1 2.1 11 8 55 4 30 10 25 (7 56) 1 30 4.0 1.8 (21 17) 17 00 23 10 8 05 (1 53) 4.1 1.9 12 9 39 5 10 11 00 (7 53) 1 21 3.9 1.6 (22 02) 17 40 23 50 8 01 (1 48) 4.4 1.9 13 10 25 5 55 11 50 (7 53) 1 25 4.0 1.5 (22 48) 18 25 8 00 4.5 14 11 13 6 25 30 (7 37 > (1 42) 3.9 1.6 (28 37) 19 00 12 20 7 47 1 07 4.8 1.4 15 7 15 1 20 (7 38) (1 43) 4.0 1.7 12 03 19 45 ■ 12 50 7 42 47 5.0 1.5 16 (0 29) 8 00 2 00 (7 31) (1 31) 4.1 1.7 12 56 sums 20 20 13 40 7 24 44 5.0 1.4 Half monthly IT 31 . 223 713 31 23 1058 31 131.6 31 53.9 (1 23) 8 35 2 40 (7 12) a 17) 4.0 1.6 13 50 21 00 14 20 7 10 30 5.1 1.4 18 (2 18) 9 25 3 30 (7 07) (1 12) 4.0 1.6 14 47 22 00 15 00 7 13 13 5.0 1.4 19 (3 15) 10 20 4 25 (7 05) (1 10) 4.0 1.6 15 43 22 40 16 10 6 57 27 4.9 1.5 20 (4 12) 11 00 5 20 (6 48) (1 08) 4.0 1.6 16 39 23 50 17 30 7 11 51 4.8 1.6 THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 87 FIRST REDUCTION.— Continued. Date. Time of — Lunitidal Interval. Height of— Year Moon's High Low Higti Low High Low 1904. Transits. Water. Water. Water. Water. Water. Water. mo. d. h. m. h. m. May 21 (5 07) 12 00 17 34 .... 22 (6 01) 30 18 28 13 30 23 (6 54) 2 00 19 20 14 30 24 (7 46) 2 40 20 12 15 45 25 (8 37) 4 00 21 03 16 30 26 (9 29) 5 00 21 55 17 30 27 (10 21) 5 35 22 48 18 00 28 (11 14) 6 30 23 41 19 00 29 7 20 (12 07) 19 50 30 34 8 00 (13 00) 20 25 31 1 26 9 00 (13 52) 21 00 Half monthly sums June 1 2 18 9 40 (14 43) 22 00 2 3 07 10 40 (15 31) 23 00 3 3 55 11 25 (16 18) 23 20 4 4 40 12 00 (17 03) .... 5 5 24 20 (17 46) 12 35 6 6 07 1 15 (18 29) 14 00 7 6 50 2 00 (19 12) 14 30 8 7 33 2 35 (19 55) 15 20 9 8 18 3 15 (20 40) 16 15 10 9 04 4 15 (21 28) 17 00 11 9 53 5 00 (22 18) 17 25 12 10 45 5 35 (23 12) 18 15 13 11 40 6 25 .... 19 20 h. m. 6 00 IS 20 7 00 19 20 8 20 20 40 9 00 21 45 10 00 23 00 11 00 23 50 11 40 35 12 30 1 30 13 20 2 25 14 00 3 00 14 35 3 50 15 30 4 40 16 35 5 35 17 10 6 20 18 00 6 50 19 00 7 25 20 00 8 30 21 00 9 00 21 30 9 35 22 30 10 30 23 20 11 15 23 55 11 40 25 12 30 h. m. (6 53) 6 56 (7 29) 7 32 (7 36) 7 20 (7 59) 7 48 (7 53) 7 57 (8 01) 7 40 (7 39) 7 42 (7 46) 7 39 (7 43) 7 26 (7 25) 7 34 (7 08) 29 200 949 7 22 (7 17) 7 33 (7 29) 7 30 (7 02) 7 20 (7 17) 7 11 (7 29) 7 53 (7 31) 7 40 (7 23) 7 47 (7 20) 7 57 (7 35) 7 56 (7 32) 7 32 (7 17) 7 30 (7 13) 7 40 h. m. (0 53) 46 (0 59) 52 (1 26) 1 20 (1 14) 1 33 (1 23) 1 57 (1 31) 1 55 (1 19) 1 47 (1 16) 1 49 (1 13) 1 51 (1 00) 1 34 (0 43) 29 20 909 1 32 (0 47) 1 33 (1 04) 1 40 (0 52) 1 40 (0 57) 1 26 (1 14) 1 18 (1 31) 1 40 (1 48) 1 27 (1 35) 1 17 (1 50) 1 26 (1 52) 1 22 (1 37) 55 (1 13) 50 feet. 4.2 4.8 4.3 4.6 4.4 4.4 4.6 4.3 4.7 4.2 5.0 4.3 5.0 4.2 5.1 4.2 5.1 4.1 5.1 4.1 5.0 29 131.5 4.0 4.8 3.9 4.5 3.9 4.4 3.9 4.3 3.8 4.1 4.0 4.1 4.1 3.9 4.2 3.9 4.5 4.0 4.7 4.1 5.1 4.2 5.2 4.3 5.3 feet. 1.6 1.9 1.8 1.9 1.5 1.7 1.4 1.7 1.3 1.7 1.3 1.7 1.4 1.5 1.3 1.6 1.3 1.6 1.5 1.7 1.6 29 45.3 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.9 2.1 1.9 2.2 1.9 2.2 2.0 2.2 1.8 2.2 1.9 2.2 1.8 2.1 1.8 2.1 1.8 2.0 1.7 TIDES AND BENCH MARKS FIRST REDUCTION.— Continued. Date. Year Moon's 1904. Transits. mo. d. h. m. June 14 (0 08) 12 36 15 (1 06) 13 35 16 (2 04) 14 33 Time of — High Low Water. Water. Lunitidal Interval. High Low Water. Water. Height of — High Low Water. Water. h. m. 7 35 20 10 8 40 21 00 10 00 22 15 h. m. 1 30 14 00 2 30 14 25 3 30 16 00 h. m. (7 27) 7 34 (7 34) 7 25 (7 56) 7 42 Half monthly sums 21 31 • 954 17 (3 01) 10 20 5 00 15 29 22 40 16 35 18 (3 57) 11 00 5 00 16 24 23 30 17 00 19 (4 51) .... 6 00 17 17 12 10 18 20 20 (5 43) 20 7 00 18 09 13 20 19 15 21 (6 35) 1 25 8 00 19 00 14 15 20 20 22 (7 25) 2 30 8 35 19 51 15 15 21 30 23 (8 16) 3 20 9 40 20 42 16 15 22 25 24 (9 08) 4 30 10 30 21 34 17 15 23 30 25 (10 00) 5 25 11 20 22 26 18 00 .... 26 (10 52) 6 10 15 23 18 18 50 12 10 27 (11 44) 7 10 1 00 .... 19 30 12 50 28 10 7 45 2 00 (12 35) 20 15 13 35 29 1 00 8 25 2 40 (13 24) 21 00 14 20 30 1 48 9 10 3 20 (14 12) 21 30 15 10 Half monthly sums. (7 19) 7 11 (7 03) 7 06 (7 19) 7 03 (7-37) 7 16 (7 40) 7 30 (7 50) 7 29 (7 59) 7 48 (8 07) 7 51 (8 00) 7 44 (7 58) 7 52 (7 46) 7 35 (7 40) 7 25 (7 36) 7 22 (7 18) 27 191 804 h. m. 1 22) 1 24 1 24) 50 1 26) 1 27 25 1039 1 59) 1 06 1 03) 36 09) 03 17) 06 25) 20 10) 89 24) 43 22) 56 20) 49 18) 42 06) 50 00) 40 56) 1 32 58) 27 24 749 feet. 4.4 5.4 4.4 5.2 4.3 5.2 31 136.1 4.3 5.0 4.3 4.8 4.3 4.5 4.4 4.5 4.7 4.5 5.0 4.4 5.0 4.2 5.0 4.2 5.0 4.1 5.1 4.1 5.1 4.2 5.1 4.2 5.0 4.2 4.9 27 124.1 feet. 1.9 1.6 1.8 1.5 1.6 1.5 31 58.6 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.6 1.4 1.9 1.6 2.0 1.6 2.1 1.7 2.0 1.5 1.9 1.5 1.9 1.5 1.9 1.6 2.0 1.8 2.0 1.9 2.0 2.0 27 46.8 RECAPITULATION. Lat. 25°05' N. Long. 77°21' W. Note. — Half monthly sums. 1903-1904. No. of Obs. H.W. L.W, Lunitidal Interval. High Water. Low Water. Mean. H. W. L. W, 1903. July 1-16 30 17-31 29 Aug. 1-16 , 31 17-31 29 h. m. h. m. feet. feet. 31 217 800 29 916 129.3 58.7 29 203 981 27 673 136.8 49.3 31 227 864 35 909 135.9 62.3 29 202 668 19 909 138.5 50.8 GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XVI FlO. 1. MARVIN :\[ETK()K()(!I{Arir, PUBLISHED HY COURTESY OF MARYLAND WEATHER SERVICE Fig. 2. — kite A^'D marvin meteorograph, published by courtesy of Maryland WEATHER service VIEWS OF PHYSICAL APPARATUS THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 89 RECAPITULATION. — Continued. 1903-1904. No. of Obs. H. W. L. W. Lunitidal Interval. High Water. Low Water. Mean. H. W. L. W. 1903. Sept. 1-16 . . . 31 31 17-30 . . . 27 27 Oct. 1-16 . .. 31 31 17-31 , .. 29 29 Nov. 1-16 . .. 31 31 17-30 , .. 27 27 Dec. 1-16 . .. 31 30 17-31 . . . 29 30 1904. Jan. 1-16 . . . 31 30 17-31 . . . 29 29 Feb. 1-16 . .. 31 31 17-29 . .. 25 25 Mar. 1-16 . . . 31 31 17-31 . . . 29 29 Apr. 1-16 . . . 31 31 17-30 . . . 27 27 May 1-16 . . . 31 31 17-31 . . . 29 29 June 1-16 . . . 31 31 17-30 . . . 27 27 707 Mean Correction 707 h. m. h. m. feet. feet. 226 908 35 825 145.2 67.4 190 851 26 702 128.1 50.6 221 896 32 855 145.4 65.1 204 961 28 830 130.4 54.5 221 808 28 950 136.1 49.1 191 926 24 987 114.5 50.1 222 808 30 993 135.0 41.2 206 896 30 930 113.4 45.9 223 763 33 791 130.1 37.1 200 905 25 730 113.6 41.8 224 778 29 943 125.8 35.8 173 647 14 807 98.5 35.4 225 703 31 693 132.6 44.a 200 753 21 688 124.6 42.7 220 849 25 1004 128.6 48.1 189 633 18 658 120.5 40.4 222 743 23 1058 131.5 53.9 200 949 20 909 131.5 45.3 217 954 25 1039 136.1 58.5 191 804 24 749 124.1 46.8 i014 19848 631 20548 3086.1 1175.1 7 33.6 1 22.6 4.37 1.66 -10.8 -10.8 Corrected Intervals . . 4.37 — 1.66 7 22.8 1 11.8 2.71 — uncorrected mean range. The mean range of tide, as given by the direct summation of high and low waters, usually requires to be corrected for the longitude of the moon's ascend- ing node, there being whole series of years during which the mean annual range is greater than an average for the lunar cycle, followed by another series of years having a smaller mean annual range than the average. For the series at Nassau the longitude of the moon's node is iV = 181°. 8 for the middle of the series, which gives I = 18°. 3 for the inclination of the lunar orbit to the terrestrial equator. The corrected mean range is equal to the product of the observed mean range by the factor F{Mn) obtained from Table 14, of Appendix 7, Coast and Geodetic Survey Report for 1894. This gives, putting Mn for the corrected mean range, Mn = 3.71 X 0.972 = 2.634 ft. Another determination of the corrected mean range is given after the table of harmonic constants, where various other ranges, such as spring and neap range, etc., will be found. 90 TIDES AND BENCH MARKS The harmonic constants given below were obtained from tlie hourly heights of the sea at Nassau, for the year beginning July 1, 1903, by a process essen- tially similar to that outlined by Professor George. H. Darwin, in the report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, for the year 1883. The amplitudes (//) or semiranges of the components, and their epochs (k) or component-tidal intervals expressed in degrees, as given in the table, have been corrected by a process for eliminating the small residual effect of one com- ponent upon another. HARMONIC CONSTANTS. From one year of hourly heights beginning July 1, 1903. Symbol. Ji Ki K2 Lo Ml Mi Ms Mi Me N2 2N Oi 00 Pi Oi 20 Ra Si St Si T2 A3 "i Pi Sa Ssa Name of Component. Speed per solar hour. Smaller lunar elliptic diurnal 15..58.")4433 Luni-solar diurnal 1.5.0410686 Luni-solar semidiurnal .30.0821372 Smaller lunar elliptic semidiurnal .... 29..i2847SS Smaller lunar elliptic diurnal 14.4920521 Principal lunar series 28.9841042 43.4761563 57.9682084 86.9523126 Larger lunar elliptic semidiurnal 28.4397296 Lunar elliptic semidiurnal, second order 27.8953548 Lunar diurnal 13.9430356 Lunar diurnal, second order 16.1391016 Solar diurnal 14.9589314 Larger lunar elliptic diurnal 13.3986G09 Lunar elliptic diurnal, second order... 12.8542862 Smaller solar elliptic 30.0410686 Principal solar series 15.0000000 90.0000000 60.0000000 30.0000000 Larger solar elliptic 29.9589314 Smaller lunar evectional 29.4556254 Variational 27.9682084 Larger lunar evectional 28.5125830 Larger lunar evectional diurnal 13.4715144 Solar annual 0.0410686 Solar semidiurnal 0.0821872 Amplitude. H Feet. 0.0169 0.2848 0.0654 0.0459 0.0144 1.2422 0.0067 0.0171 0.0059 0.3026 0.0402 0.2138 0.0092 0.0872 0.0377 0.0056 0.0017 0.0104 0.0034 0.0044 0.2101 0.0124 0.0087 0.0282 0.0675 0.0081 0.3115 0.1013 Epoch, 118.73 120.50 246.10 246.59 101.97 213.3f 153.73 65.31 279.15 190.54 167.70 124.06 116.94 121.59 118.28 127.59 237.36 171.96 104.04 318.81 237.36 237.36 224.51 202.73 189.28 125.59 143.90 32.88 The mean lunitidal intervals may be obtained from the harmonic constants by the equations HWI = 0.034.6 (Ml—v) (1) LWI= 0.0345 (Ml — w) + 6.21 h. (2) where HWI =^ mean high water lunitidal interval " LWI = " low " " " and V and w are such that THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 91 _ 21/4 sin {23P^ — 3r^) + S3I, sin (3J/.° — J/g) + tan V - ^,jj^ _j_ 22 jy^ ^^g {2Ml—3Pi) + S'Wg cos (3Jf § — M^) + _ 231, sin (23/ ■'?— i/») — S3I, sin (3itf.^ — i/g) + tan i^ - _ pjj^ _^ 2^'J/4 cos {2if2" — 3fl) — 3^Jf e cos (33/.^ — Ml)-{- From (1) and (3) we obtain HWI = 7h. 21.om. LWI = lli. 09.4ni. The corresponding values from the First Reduction were HWI = 7h. 22.8m. LWI — Ih. 11.8m. which, considering tlie great difference in methods, is regarded as a very fair agreement. The sun's effect upon the time of tide is sometijnes to accelerate and some- times to retard its occurrence, according to the moon's phase or the relative positions of the moon and sun. The 'priming of the tides is the period when the tides occur sooner than the average, which roughly speaking usually occurs from new or full moon to the quadratures; and the lagging of the tides is the period during wliich they occur later than the average, which is approximately from the quadratures to new or full moon. The theoretical limits of this variation in lunitidal interval due to priming and lagging of the tide are given by the following formulas : Mean minimum HWI = HWI -^^—^ (3) " maximum £fIF7= /rPr/+-^^^ (4) Extreme minimum HWI = HWI— -J^M^'^ (5) " maximum HWI = HWI + M^—l^k ' <^^) For Nassau we obtain from (3), (4), (5), and (6), the following values: Least lunitidal intervals due to phase or priming of the tides. Mean Minimum Extreme minimum HWI = 7h. 01.3m. ' 77117 = 6h. 53.6m. Greatest lunitidal intervals due to phase or lagging of the tides. Mean maximum Extreme maximum HWI = 7h. 44.3m. 77117 = Th. 52.0m. The extreme values for priming and lagging occur when the moon is in apogee at the time of the equinoxes, and the moon is between three and four days from the new or full. 92 ■ TIDES AND BENCH MARKS The declination of the moon also makes a change in the lunitidal intervals and heights of the tide, which is usually greatest when the declination becomes a maximum, at which time the moon is not far from the tropics. Hence the tides due to the moon's declination, when at their most pronounced type, are called tropic tides. At the time of the tropic tides the two high or two low waters of the same day are generally unequal, and the range from the higher high water to the lower low water is called the great tropic range. The lunitidal intervals for the tropic higher high and lower high waters and for the higher low and lower low waters may be obtained from the mean intervals as follows : Tropic HffWI = HW'l - 2.07 X Table 44 (7) LHWI= HHI—2m X " 44 (8) HLWI^ LWI— 2.01! X " 44 (9) LLWI^ LWI— 2.07 X " 44. (10) The table referred to here is in Appendix 9, Coast and Geodetic Survey Eeport for 1897, the argument being different for each phase of tide. The tropic lunitidal intervals from (7), (8), (9), and (10), are: Tropic HHWI = 7" 27.7^'a Tropic HLWI= 1" 34.2"^ " LHWI= 7^ ILO"^ " LLWI = 0^ 4:C>.0'''a. A tropic lunitidal interval marked a indicates that if such an interval is added to the time of an upper transit of the moon when in north declination, or to a lower transit with south declination, it will give the time of the higher high or lower low water, according to which interval is used. The tropic tides may be said to result from the combination of a semidiur- nal with a diurnal wave. The tropic lunitidal interval of the diurnal wave, putting Di for diurnal, may be found by the equation n.HWI - 0.0342 {Kl + 0',)a (1 1) which gives DyHWI = S"" 21.9'"a. The mean range of tide may be obtained from the harmonic constants by the formula + i/2 (cos V + cos w) + - J^ 2 J/4 (i' — lo) sin (23/° — M\) loU + 2if6 COS {ZMl — Mt) — 2J/2 THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 93 which, by means of Table 22, Appendix T, Coast and Geodetic Survey Report for 1894, becomes Mn = 2.04 M, X Table 22 + .035 M, (y — w) siu {'ZMl — M\) + M.^ (cos V + cos w) + 2il/g cos (3 Ml — Ml) — 2M, (12) in which the v and w are the same as obtained for (1) and (2). By (12) the mean range of tide at Nassau from the harmonic constants is Mn — 2.609 ft. and from the higli and low waters this range was found to l)e Mn — 2.634 ft. The spring and neap ranges of tide may be obtained from the harmonic constants by the formulas Sg = Mn — M^ Np = Mn — -.536 r; r M., L .96 —.08 ■)] 1.96^.08f-^Lt^iV M, X [^^2 + /h COS (2i/« ~Sl- /..«)] (13) X [S., + p., cos (2^« -SI- !4)\ (U) in which the first and last letters of the words spring and neap are used as abbreviations. From (13) and (14) we obtain Sg = 3.051 ft., and Np = 2.129 ft. The heights of the tropic tides may be found by the following formulas : Tropic HHW = 1.02 A. X Table 45, above iVSL (15) " LHW^ " '' " " (16) " HLW= '' " " " (17) " LLW= " " " " (18) where A. = 1.010 M, + 0.27 ^j, — K, cos [(^? — 6»;) ^ (Al - Ml)l and the table is in Appendix 9 of the Coast and Geodetic Survey Report for 1897, different arguments being used for entering the table for the various tides. From (15), (16), (17), and (18), we find Tropic HHW = 1.737 ft. above mean sea level. Z^l^= 0.735 " " " " " " HLW= 1.124 " below " " " LLW= 1.404 " " " " " The difference between the two high waters of the tropic tides is called the tropic high water diurnal inequality, abbreviated to Tropic HWQ, and the 94 TIDES AND BENCH MARKS corresponding difference for low water is called tropic low water diurnal ine- quality, abbreviated to Tropic LWQ. The great tropic range is the difference between higher high and lower low waters, the contraction being Gc. Tropic HWQ = 1.737 — 0.735 = 1.002 ft. " LWQ=1A04: — 1. 124^^ = 0. 2S0" (?c = 1.737 + 1.404 = 3.141 " The mean great diurnal range of tide is abbreviated Gf, and when either tropic inequality is more than a quarter of Mn, we have The range of the diurnal wave may be found from the harmonic constants by the formula 2i), = 2 042 (/r, + 0,) (19) in which the diurnal wave is represented by 2Z>i. From (19) we obtain 2D^ = 1.018 ft. for ^^assau. The perigean and apogean ranges are due to the moons varying distance, and may be obtained from the harmonic constants l)y the following formulas : ,^ .481 Nl , r^, SI si .08 {K, + OOn X[_2N-i-N, — L.;] (20) .481 Nl , An = Mn— j^-'-j- 2.1 .08 {K, + 0,f ] 2 3Ilmi~ Ml Xl2N-{N,-LS (21) in which the words apogean and jjerigean are abbreviated to their first and last letters. From (20) and (21) we find for Nassau Pn = 3.190 ft., and An —. 2.124 ft. Eecapitulation. Non-harmonic results for Nassau, New Providence, Bahamas, from a jear of tidal observations beginning July 1, 1903. Time Relations. h. m. Establishment of the port, or the mean high water lunitidal interval at full and change of the moon 7 28.7 Corrected establishment of the port, or the mean of all high water lunitidal intervals — 7 22.8 Mean of all low water lunitidal intervals 1 11.8 " tropic higher high water lunitidal interval 7 27.7a " " lower " '* " " 7 14.0 " higher low " '• " 1 34.2 " " lower " " " " O 46.0a " " high water lunitidal interval of the diurnal wave 8 21.9a " minimum high water lunitidal interval due to phase, or the priming of the tides — 7 01.3 " maximum " " " " " " " lagging '* " — 7 44.3 Extreme minimum high water lunitidal interval due to phase and parallax 6 53.6 " maximum " " " '* " " " " 7 52.0 GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XVII s • Fig. 1. l-|.VIN(i KITKS AT ]VASSAU Fig. 2. — view of thunder storm north of abaco VIEWS ILLUSTEATIXG WORK ON CLIMATE THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 95 Height Relations. Ft. Mean of all high waters on fixed tide staff 4.332 " low " " " 1.698 " higher high waters on fixed tide staff 4.640 " " lower low " " " 1.632 " of the tropic higher high waters on fixed tide staff 4.728 " " " lower " " " " 3.726 " " " higher low " " " 1.867 ' " " lower " " " " 1.687 " Spring high water on fixed tide staff 4.540 low " " " 1.489 " Neap high " " " 4.079 " low " " " 1.950 " Perigean high " " " ... . 4.610 " " low " " •' 1.420 " Apogean high " " " 4.077 low" " " 1.953 " sea level from hourly heights of the sea, on fixed tide staff' 2.991 " half-tide level from high and low waters, " " 3.015 Ranges, Inequalities, etc. Ft. Mean range of all tides 2.634 " " Springtides 3.051 " Neap " 2.129 " " the great tropic tides 3.141 "small " " 1.859 " " tides from mean higher high to mean lower low waters — 3.008 " " Perigean tides 3.190 " " Apogean " 2.124 " " the tropic diurnal wave 1.018 " tropic high water diurnal inequality 1 .002 low " " " 0.280 " age of the phase tides Id Oh " " " parallax tides Id 18h diurnal " — Od 3h ANNUAL VARIATION IN MEAN SEA LEVEL AT NASSAU. Date. Sea level Date. Sea level Date. Sea level Date Sea level feet. feet. feet. feet. Jan. 1 -.3 Apr. 1 -.1 July 1 +.1 Oct. 1 +.3 " 16 -.4 " 16 -.1 '■ 16 +.2 " 16 +.2 Feb. 1 -.4 May 1 Aug. 1 +.2 Nov. 1 +.1 " 16 -.3 " 16 O " 16 +.3 " 16 Mar. 1 -.3 June 1 +.1 Sept. 1 +.3 Dec. 1 -.1 " 16 -.2 " 16 +.1 " 16 +.4 " 16 -.2 The above table was computed from the formula X = Sa COS (h — Sa") + Ssa cos (27t — Ssa°) where x = height of mean sea level, + when above, — ■ when below the mean of entire year. h = the mean longitude of the sun. The other symbols are the harmonic constants for the annual and semian- nual inequalities. The values in the table do not exactly average zero, on ac- count of fractions neglected in reducing to a single decimal place. 96 TIDES AND BENCH MARKS From tliis table it appears that the mean level of the sea is most depressed in the latter part of January, and most elevated in September. This change in mean level is presumed to be due to meteorological conditions, such as varia- tions in barometric pressure and resultant wind directions and velocities. In conclusion, it may be remarked that the type of tide at Nassau is that of the Atlantic coast of the United States, and not at all like the tides in the Gulf of Mexico. MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS IN THE BAHAMA ISLANDS MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS IN THE BAHAMA ISLANDS BY OLIVER L. FASSIG, Ph. D., Section Director of the U. S. Weather Bureau, at Baltimore, Md. INTRODUCTION. The instrumental equipment for the magnetic surve}' of the Islands con- sisted of the following : ( 1 ) A Fauth theodolite, with a compass needle and a tripod, the latter provided with an extra head for mounting the dip circle. With this instrument observations for obtaining the true azimuth of the mark, the correction of the observer's watch on local mean time, and for latitude, were made. B}' mounting the compass needle on the telescope, the necessary observations were made for obtaining the magnetic declination. (2) A Kew- Casella dip circle (Plate XIV, Fig. 1), provided with two Dover needles, with which the regular dip observations were made, and two intensity needles for dip and relative intensity observations. This instrument was also provided with a compass for making declination observations. (3) A. magnetic observ- ing tent. The entire instrumental outfit, the necessary training of observer, as well as detailed instructions for making observations of magnetic declination, dip and relative intensity and for the necessary astronomical observations, were provided by the Superintendent of the IT. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. The directions furnished were carefully and conscientiously followed at all stations occupied, and the observations were reduced in the Division of Terrestrial Magnetism of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. STATIONS OCCUPIED. The magnetic declination and dip have been determined for a number of localities in the Islands since ISol. The location of the stations, the values obtained and the names of the ol)servers are given in Table I. Some of the former stations were reoccupied, as nearly as practicable, in order to obtain the value for the secular variation in the Islands. A complete set of observations was made at the following stations for 100 MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS determining the magnetic declination, dip and relative intensity : At Nassau, on the grounds of the old Government House; at Watlings Island, the sup- posed landing place of Columbus in 1493 ; and at Clarence Town, Long Island. Observations for the determination of declination only were made on Hog Island, just across the harbor from Nassau, and very close to the former station occupied in 1879 by Lieut. Ackley; in the Public Square at Nassau, where a meridian line was utilized, which was established by Mr. Miller, the Surveyor-General of the Islands. At Hopetown, Abaco Island, declination and dip observations were made. The results of the observations described above, and reduced under the direction of the Superintendent of tlie Coast and Geodetic Survey, are shown in Tables II and III. A detailed description of the stations occupied, and of the preliminary results obtained, follows in the chronological order of occupancy.^ Nassau: Old Government House. The station is on the grounds of the old Government House, built by the first governor of the Islands. The property was for many years, until re- cently, used as a government hospital. About six or eight years ago it was purchased by the Catholic Church and the building is now the residence of the local priest. The exact locality of the station is marked by means of five copper nails, driven into the bed rock, about 75 feet west-northwest from the northwest corner of the building. These nails are covered by means of a slab about one foot square, with the inscription " Bahama Expedition, 1903." The location of the station was further fixed by sighting upon three points, Hog Island Lighthouse to the north, the Obelisk to the west, and the northwest edge of the Priory. The mark used was the tip of the Obelisk at Fort Charlotte. Its true azimuth was found to be 86° 47.4' west of true north. Complete observations were made at this point on June 30, 1903, and July 2, 3, 4, by the writer, and recorded by J. E. Eouth. Hog Island, on the North Side of the Harbor of Nassau. Observations to determine the magnetic declination were made about 30 to 35 feet west-northwest of the stone monument marking tlie southwest ^ The descriptions of stations occupied, and tlie final results of the computations as given in Table II. are published in the Annual Report of the Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey for the year 1903-4, Appendix No. 3, p. 254. OEOQRAPHrCAL SOCIETY OF B*' '''VriRE THE BAHAMA ISLAXDS 101 corner of a former Crown Eeservation. This is presumably within a few feet of the station occupied by Lieut. Ackley in 1879 for declination observa- tions, although no evidence of his station was found. The station is approximately 2200 feet from the front of the Board of Trade yard in ISTassau, and 5000 feet east of the Hog Island Lighthouse. It is just above high tide, on the south shore of Hog Island, and directly oppo- site the Eoyal Victoria Hotel in Nassau. The mark used was the Obelisk at Fort Charlotte, which is west-south- west from the station. The observations were made July 5, 1903, by J. E. Eouth, and recorded by the writer. Nassau : Public Square. The station is at the southern extremity of the meridian line established by the Surveyor-General, Mr. Miller, from North Star observations. This point is marked by a bolt in a stone slab a few feet to the north of the aban- doned well, between the Library building and the Customs House. The north end of the meridian line is a bolt in the wall of the Customs House, about 300 feet distant from the south end, where observations for magnetic declina- tion were made. This meridian line is in the grounds of the public buildings. Declina- tion observations only were made at this station, along the meridian line above described. The location, in the midst of the city buildings, was not regarded as a favorable location for magnetic observations. The observations were made July 4, 1903, by the writer, and recorded by J. E. Routh. Watlixgs Island, Cockbukn Town. The station is on the Government Eesidency, and hence on Crown Land. It is about 40 feet east-southeast from the southeast corner of the residence and is marked by a pint bottle buried in the ground to the depth of three or four inches. The only available nuirk was John ]\Iacky's house in Sugar Loaf village, distant about four miles to the south and across the bay. This house is the largest of a group of three or four dwellings, visible from the magnetic station and in the settlement called Sugar Loaf. The location of this station was selected on account of its convenient access from the point of anchorage at Eiding Eock Point, the time of obser- vation being limited to one day, July 13, 1903. The town is called Cockburn Town, a settlement with a population of 400 to 500. 102 MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS Complete magnetic observations were made by the writer, and recorded by J. E. Eouth. Clarence Town, Clarence Harbor, Long Island. The station is in the Government Residency and is marl^ed by a three- fourth-inch copper l)olt set in bed roclv, between the main portion of the resi- dence occupied by Magistrate W. L. Clear, and the flagstaff. It is about 40 feet from the flagstaff and about 60 feet from the portico of the residence. The mark used was the rod on top of the light staff on Claspins Point. The true azi- muth of this mark was found to be 28° 44.4' east of true north. Complete magnetic observations were made here on July 14 and 15, 1903, by the writer, and recorded by J. E. Eouth. Hopetown, Elbow Cay, Abaco. The observations were made on a narrow ridge between Little Harbor and the southeast coast of Elbow Cay. The station is about 100 feet north- east of the public schoolhouse, and about 100 feet northwest of the Episcopal Church. It is marked by a limestone rock about a foot square, planted in the soil. The mark used was the rod on top of the Elbow Cay Lighthouse, which is about one-half a mile north-northwest of the station. Only declination and dip observations were made, cloudy weather and a high northeast wind rendering it impossible to make sun observations and a full series of dip and relative intensity observations. The observations were made by the writer, July 22, 1903, and recorded by J. E. Eouth. table i.-earlier values of magnetic elements at stations in the BAHAMAS. No. Station. Lat. Long. Date. Decl'n. Dip. Hor. Int. Observer. W. of Gr. O ' O / O ^ O ' 1 South Bimini.... 25 4-_> 70 17.6 1879, Feb. 2 27.9 E. .56 20.3 0.2973 Lt. S. M. Ackley. 24, 25, 26. 2 Nassau, on Hog I. 25 05.5 3 Nassau 25 05 4 " 25 05 5 ' 25 05 6 WatUngs Island*. 23 57 7 Crooked Islandt.. 22 07 8 " " 22 07 9 Crooked Island... 22 47 * Supposed landing place of Columbus, 1493. + Probably should be Acklins Island. Source. Nos. 1 and 3, U.S. C. & G. S. Report 1881, App. 9, pp. 33-63. Nos. 3 to 9, Sabine's Contrib. XIV. Phil. Trans. Rov. Soc. is:.*;. 77 20 1879, Feb. 18-22. 1 25. 6 E. .5.5 50.5 0.2998 77 21 1839- 3 07 E. Milne. 77 21 1841 50 13 E. Barnett. 77 21 1843 56 23 " 74 25 1831 2 31 E. Smith. 74 24 1831 4 27 E. Austin. 74 24 1835 5 13 B. Foster. 74 21 1837 2 34 E. Milne. K Q Ph o < C5 rl Q o i5 w . t^. — ; CO-* co-^ CO'fH « « -•- TfXOiCO co'co' co'd o-H 3- ® a o o ■^e s ® *; m a 3C5 -s 5P| -kJ o 93 ■a ij ^ 25 05 04 CI 0< 0< r-t OX CO 10 fltM qo . Tf "* I- 1- I' CO W t- t> l^ I- u ^ ^c OS J cs o b a -w SC o .^ ^ tM 0) o o .o 0) ^ o c a o o X3 O a ® > ■a ® o 3 ■a ® ■a 1 c C8 c n =4H flj O o a 1) o :f!prtof ppain THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 113 to prevent that almost intolerable combination of high temperature, high humidity and a stagnant air from which there is no escape. The Islands are on the edge of the region of trade winds, which here keep up a steady flow, mostly from northeast, east or southeast, according to the season. The rainfall varies greatly from year to year. In the five years from 1898 to 1902 the annual amount ranged from 38 inches to 62 inches. The average annual fall is approximately 50 inches. The rains are mostly of short duration, but frequent, and occasionally heavy. The average number of days with rain during the course of the year is about 150, with the greatest frequency in the summer and fall months. Thunderstorms occur in all the months of the year but are most frequent in the summer months. The Islands are apparently healthful and remarkably free from the dis- eases generally associated with warm climates. In addition to the favorable climatic condition of the Islands, they afford a pleasing, though somewhat limited, variety of tropical vegetation, marvelous beauty of the surrounding waters, and abundant opportunity for sailing and fishing, all of which com- bine to offer a constant temptation to the visitor to lead an outdoor life. While the Islands admirably meet the requirements of those who desire to spend a few restful months in quiet and congenial surroundings, or of the invalid in search of health, the atmosphere lacks the tonic effect so character- istic of our more northern climates, which make great exertion possible in all affairs of life. TEMPERATURE. In most regions where a marine climate prevails, there is comparatively little variation in temperature conditions from month to month, or from one year to another. A few years of carefully made observations will generally yield safe normal and extreme values for such localities. Out of the long series of observations available for Nassau, selection has been made for special consideration of the observations covering the five-year period from 1898 to 1902. The small island of JSFew Providence, upon which Nassau is built, is in the midst of the group constituting the Bahama Islands and its climatic conditions will fairly represent conditions in the entire group. All observations cited in the following pages, unless otherwise stated, were made at Nassau from 1898 to 1902. 114 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS MEANS AND EXTREMES OF TEMPERATURE AT NASSAU. -, Mean Mean Absolute Mean. Minimum. Maximum. Minimum. Maximum. January 71.2 64.4 77.9 55 84 February 70.6 64.0 77.3 53 88 March 73.2 66.8 79.5 58 88 April 75.2 69.6 80.9 60 91 May 78.2 72.9 83.4 63 93 June 81.5 76.0 87.0 71 98 July 82.6 76.6 88.6 69 96 August 83.4 76.9 89.8 69 95 September 82.1 75.7 88.5 69 96 October 79.4 74.6 84.2 68 93 November 75.4 70.3 80.4 57 90 December 72.7 67.4 78.0 55 87 Annual 77.1 71.3 83.0 53 98 Feb. 14, June 25, 1899. 1898. The seasons are not sharply marked by temperature changes as in regions farther north. The mean of the three winter months is 71°. From June to September the average monthly temperature is extremely constant, varying only between the limits of 81.5° for June and 83.4° for August, with an average for the four warmest months of 82.4°. Hence the difference between the winter temperatures and those of summer is only 11.4°. The mean of the early morning temperatures in winter is 65.0°, while the mean for the warmest part of the day is 77.7°. In the summer months the morning mini- mum and afternoon maximum heat averages 76.3° and 88.5° respectively. The figures cited in the preceding paragraph are average seasonal values and do not show the limits of variability. The absolute extremes of tem- perature noted, while showing a much greater range, are still small enough to demonstrate the marine character of the climate. The lowest temperature recorded during the five-year period under consideration was 53°, which occurred on the 14th day of February, 1899. The highest during the same period was 98°, recorded on the 25th day of June, 1898. Absolute Extremes of Temperature at Nassau. A careful examination of the published records from 1853 to 1886, and of the manuscript records from 1898 to 1902, covering in all a period of 39 years, shows tlie following figures of extreme heat and cold experienced at Nassau during each month of the year. The year and day of occurrence are added in each case. THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 115 ABSOLUTE EXTREMES OF TEMPERATURE AT NASSAU. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year. Min 49 53 49 54 61 63 66 66 64 63 58 48 48 Year 1866 1865 1869 1869 1869 1869 1885 1869 1869 1857 1865 1868 1868 Date 10 2 2 16 23 12 23 2 7 28 .... 25 Dec. Max 96 97 91 96 100 102 106 99 109 96 99 97 109 Year 1871 1871 1856 1872 1856 1870 1870 1871 1870 3872 1877 1870 1870 Date 28 16 14 10 10 21 14 2 27 2 8 22 Sept. The lowest temperature recorded in 39 years (namely, 48°, or 16° above the freezing point of water) occurred in 1868 on December 35. The absolute minimum for six months of the year was recorded in the year 1869. The maximum attained a surprisingly high mark in the year 1870, exceeding 100° in three months, with an absolute maximum of 109° in Sep- tember. That the absolute extremes of temperature in 39 years should have occurred in consecutive years, while surprising, is not without a parallel. A similar coincidence occurred in the years 1898 and 1899, when records for greatest heat and cold respectively were broken in many parts of the United States. Extremes of Temperature at Cat Cay. The following summary of extremes of temperature at Cat Cay is based upon the record of Mr. Arthur S. Haigh during the years 1896 to 1900. Cat Cay is a small island on the extreme western edge of the Bahama group and not more than 60 miles east of the Florida coast and on the eastern edge of the Gulf Stream. EXTREMES OF TEMPERATURE AT CAT CAY. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year. Maximum 77 79 81 83 84 90 90 91 89 85 80 78 91 Minimum 66 68 09 72 75 80 80 71 79 77 74 69 66 Range 11 11 12 11 8 10 10 20 10 8 6 9 25 The extremely small variability shown by the above figures is undoubt- edly due to the proximity of the observing station to the warm waters of the Gulf Stream. Comparative Temperature Data. Comparative readings of winter and summer temperatures are given below in order to show the relative climatic position of the Bahamas. 116 CLIilATIC CONDITIONS COMPARATIVE TEMPERATURE DATA. Mean of Mean of Place. Annual Warmest Coldest Difference. Mean. Month. Month. Nassau 77° 83° 71° 12° Havana 77 82 71 11 Santiago 79 S3 74 9 San Juan 79 82 76 6 Kingston (Jam.) 78 81 76 5 St. Thomas 80 83 77 6 Barbados 80 81 78 3 Trinidad 77 78 75 3 Bermuda 69 79 62 17 Jupiter, Fla 72 82 67 15 Mean of Mean of Place. Annual Annual Difference. Maxima. Minima. Nassau 95° 5.5° 40° Havana 100 55 45 Porto Rico 97 64 33 Trinidad 89 64 25 Jupiter, Fla 93 31 62 RELATIVE HUMIDITY. The amount of moisture in the atmosphere is a factor of the highest importance, especially in its influence upon personal comfort. The aSTassau observations show the presence throughout the year of a high humidity. The official records give the average monthly values for the hours of 9 a. m. and 3 p. m. The daily means determined from observations at these hours give a value about 6 per cent too low, as the hours between sunset and sunrise, when the percentages are highest, are not represented. A continuous record of variation in humidity throughout the day was obtained during our stay in the Islands from June 25 to July 20, by means of a Eichard hygrograph. This record made it possible to apply a correction to the mean for the 9 a. m. and 3 p. m. observations in order to arrive at the true daily mean humidity based on 34 hourly observations. The corrected monthly values are shown in the column marked " mean " in the table below. The humidity during the night hours ranges between 85 per cent and 90 per cent, and during midday is about 73 per cent. The amount of moisture in the atmosphere is remarkably uniform tliroughout the year, while the daily range is small, not varying much from 15 per cent. Such humidities as these com- bined witli tlie liigli temperature of the Islands would be very oppressive were it not for the almost constant presence of a breeze. The presence of so much moisture in the atmosphere is undoubtedly instrumental in diminishing the power of the direct rays of the sun. THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 117 MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY. 9 A. M. 3 P. M. * Daily Mean. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. January 79 74 82 February 77 74 82 March 73 69 77 April 73 70 78 May 74 68 77 .Tune 72 73 78 .July 73 75 80 August 69 69 75 September 74 73 80 October 74 72 79 November 72 69 76 December 76 70 79 Year 74 71 78 * Corrected to daily means based on 24 hourly observations. CLOUDS AND SUNSHINE. There is an abundance of bright sunshine throughout the year. The Islands being within the westward extension of the area of high barometric jDressure over the Atlantic Ocean a large portion of the year share with this area much of its fine weather. Overcast skies are not persistent. The aver- age amount of cloudiness does not vary greatly from month to month. It is slightly greater in the summer and fall months than during the winter. Cloudiness is least in January and February and greatest, on the average, in October. The distribution throughout the year is indicated in the following table showing the monthly average values at 9 a. m. and 3 p. m. for a period of five years. AVERAGE CLOUDINESS. (10, completely overcast; 0, practically clear.) Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug-. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year. }>a. ra 5.0 4.9 5.6 5.6 5.8 7.3 6.7 6.9 7.2 7.8 ii.n 6.2 6.3 ;!p. m 4.9 5.3 5.1 5.4 5.6 6.5 7.5 7.4 7.5 7.8 5.9 7.1 6.3 RAINFALL. The rainfall varies greatly in amount from year to year. The average annual fall approximates 50 inches. Fully four-fifths of the total annual precipitation occurs from May to October, leaving but one-fifth for the winter and early spring months. During the five years from 1898 to 1902, the heaviest rainfall occurred in the month of August. During the summer months the rainfall is frequently excessive in amount, but, as a rule, the duration is short. Included in the equipment for a study of the climate of the Islands was an instrument designed to register automatically the begin- nings and endings of rainfall, by means of which a record was obtained of all local rains, both heavy and light, from June 33 to July 19. The record 118 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS shows the showers of June and July to have been of very brief duration, with- out exception. Thirty-six separate showers were recorded during 17 of the total of 27 days. Of these, the heaviest and of longest duration lasted but one hour. The average duration was not over ten minutes for each shower. The average monthly amount of rainfall, the maximum amounts re- corded in any 24 consecutive hours, and the average frequency of days with rain, are indicated in the following table : IIAINFALL AT NASSAU. (In inches and hundredths.) Averag-e Averase Monthly Maximum Number of Days Amounts. in 24 Hours. With Rain. January 1.20 0.40 1C.4 February 1.15 0.62 7.6 March 1.09 0.70 6.8 April 1.92 0.94 7.8 May 4.66 1.28 9.G June 5.65 1.91 13.4 July 5.19 1.92 18.8 August 9.09 2.72 19.6 September 8.05 2.26 17.6 October 7.80 2.56 19.0 November 1.95 0.95 9.2 December 1.68 0.66 12.0 Year 49.43 2.72 151.8 Annual maximum 91. .50 inches in 1805. Annual minimum '25.54 inches in 1882. RAINFALL AT CAT CAY. (For 1896, 1897, 1898, 1900. Record incomplete.) Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. MaJ^ June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year. 1.41 •_>.'_>! 2.15 2.75 ;5.n4 4.09 5.37 5.40 7.52 5.8G 1.82 1.36 43.80 WIND DIRECTION. The geographical position of the Islands on the southwestern edge of the persistent area of high barometric pressure which covers the North Atlantic Ocean causes a prevailing easterly wind throughout the year. The group is on the northern edge of the reg-ular trade wind belt, in which there is a steady flow of the atmosphere from the east, or the points between north- east and southeast, with a preponderance of east winds. The relative fre- quency of winds from the different points of the compass during the course of the year is indicated in the following table of statistics covering a period of five years. GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE ^'^:^- THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 119 PREVAILING WIND DIRECTION. (The average number of days per month upon which the indicated wind prevailed.) N. NE. E. SE. S. SW. W. NW. Calm. January 4.4 6.1 8.2 5.2 1.8 1.1 0.8 1.8 1.6 February 4.3 5.1 4.3 2.6 4.2 2.0 0.8 8.1 1.6 March 2.4 4.3 7.8 6.4 4.8 1.4 0.7 2.0 0.6 April 2.5 6.4 6.5 5.5 3.2 1.2 0.3 3.8 0.9 May 2.0 6.0 11.5 2.6 3.5 1.2 0.9 2.9 0.4 June 0.8 3.1 13.5 7.1 2.7 0.7 0.4 0.1 1.6 July 0.4 3.0 13.0 9.3 2.4 0.1 ... 0.1 0.7 August 1.1 5.3 9.9 7.6 3.0 1.2 0.1 0.3 2.5 September 2.1 3.7 8.6 8.2 2.3 1.3 0.6 1.3 1.9 October 3.2 8.3 7.0 3.9 1.6 1.4 0.8 1.5 3.3 November 3.4 9.0 9.5 3.0 1.3 0.8 0.3 1.5 1.2 December 3.9 6.9 9.3 2.6 2.8 0.8 1.0 2.4 1.3 Year 30.5 67.2 109.1 64.0 33.6 13.2 6.7 21.4 17.6 Converting the total frequencies for the year into percentages of the total number of days in the year, Ave have the following as the relative fre- quency from each direction : PERCENTAGE OF FREQUENCY OF WINDS. N. NB. E. SE. S. SW. W. NW. Calm. 8 18 30 18 9 4 2 6 .5 WIND VELOCITY. A year's continuous record of wind velocity at the Bahama Cable Office at Nassau shows the average hourly velocity from July 1, 1902, to June .'30, 1903, to have been as indicated in the following table. The winds are strongest and steadiest in the winter and spring months, and lightest in the late summer and early fall. In the diurnal period of the winds, the velocity increases steadily from the early morning hours to a maximum near noon. DAILY WIND MOVEMENT AT NASSAU. (In miles per hour.) d xJ h '-■ b a i? 2J Q. 4i ir S 5s From I-: 9 a. m. to noon 10 Noon to 6 p. m 10 6 p. m. to midnight 8 Midnight to 6 a. m 9 6 a. m. to 9 a. m 9 Hourly average 9 The average hourly velocity during the period from June 17, 1903, the day of our arrival at Nassau, to July 7, 1903, as recorded at the Cable Office, is as follows: S < S 3 3 < o O K? c 14 11 12 10 9 8 8 8 7 12 12 10 12 10 11 14 8 9 7 7 7 10 6 9 10 8 8 8 6 6 5 •5 6 9 12 8 9 8 9 8 5 6 5 4 6 9 10 7 8 9 10 9 9 10 5 5 6 8 11 8 11 9 10 10 7 8 6 G 6 10 10 8 7 8 9 10 11 5.6 7.0 8.'2 8.8 9.1 10.0 Noon, 6.8 6.2 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.7 Mdnt, 120 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS AVERAGE HOURLY VELOCITY OF WIND. (In miles per hour.) Hours ending. 12 3 4 5 6 Morning- 5.4 5.0 5.0 5.6 5.6 5.7 Afternoon 9.9 9.9 9.6 8.5 8.5 7.6 THUNDERSTORMS. Tlie Islands are free from violent atmospheric disturbances during the greater portion of the year. A comparatively mild type of thunderstorm occurs in all months of the year, but they are of rare occurrence in the winter months. These storms are of short duration and are frequently accompanied by very heavy showers. Even in the season of greatest frequency they aver- age but 4 or 5 per month. In the five years from 1898 to 1902, the average annual number was 29 and the seasonal distribution as indicated by the fol- lowing figures : AVERAGE FREQUENCY OF THUNDERSTORMS. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Y'ear. 0.8 0.6 1.2 1.2 3.0 3.2 5.8 7.2 3.2 2.6 0.2 O 29 One of the members of the Expedition was fortunate enough to secure an admirable photograph of a typical thunderstorm as it appeared at sea, where nothing was present to interfere with a comprehensive view of the disturbance throughout its entire extent. This photograph was taken just north of Abaco, and a reproduction is shown in Plate XVII, Fig. 2. HURRICANES. The Bahama Islands lie in the midst of the tracks of the West India hurricanes. The line marking the mean path of these fierce tropical storms passes across the eastern edge of the group during August, and along the western edge during the month of September. In October the center of activity again recedes eastward to its July position. The hurricane is the severest type of. cyclonic storm and has been dreaded by the inhabitants of the Islands, and especially those sailing the seas, from time immemorial. They are not of very frequent occurrence, fortunately, and they are confined prac- tically to the months of August, September and October. Occasionally one will appear as early as June and July, and even as early as May, but most of these storms occur in August, September and October, after which there is an abrupt cessation, only one storm of the kind having been recorded in 25 years in the month of JSTovember. the bahama islands 131 Frequency of Hurricanes. A former Director of the observatory at Havana, M. Poey, many years ago gathered statistics in regard to hurricanes in the West Indies and suc- ceeded in collecting evidence of 355 which visited the West Indies from 1493 to 1855. An incomplete list of later compilation added twelve more for the years from 1856 to 1877. The storms of this class occurring since 1878 have been fully described and carefully studied by Mr. Garriott in an interesting report ' recently issued by the U. S. Weather Bureau. The reader is referred to this bulletin for a detailed account of the hurricanes occurring within this period and for general information concerning the origin and path of the storms. The charts published in Bulletin H are reproduced in Plates XVIII to XXIV, with the addition of the storms occurring from 1901 to 1903 in- clusive. Classifying the 355 hurricanes in M. Poey's list which occurred from 1493 to 1855, and those in Mr. Garriott's list of 98, which occurred between 1878 and 1900, we have the following distribution by months: FREQUENCY OP HURRICANES. .Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug-. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Yr. Poey (1493-1855) 5 7 11 G 5 10 42 96 80 69 17 7 355 Garriott (1878-1900). 3 1 3 3 25 25 32 3 3 98 The above tabulation shows that the storms are almost entirely restricted to the months of August, September and October. The accompanying charts reproduced from Weather Bureau Bulletin H, bring out vividly the sudden increase in the number of these storms during the month of August and their equally rapid cessation in November. The path and daily progress of every storm of consequence occurring since 1878 is sho^vn upon these charts. These storms mostly originate, or first appear within our field of view, in the neighborhood of the Windward Islands, move in a direction between west and northwest at the rate of about 10 or 12 miles per hour, and recurve to northward and then to northeastward approximately in the neighborhood of Florida, or within the area of the Bahama group of islands. They are similar in form and structure to the temperate region storms which are so familiar to us, especially in the fall and winter season, but differ from these in being more restricted in tlieir area and more intense in the destructive ^West Indian Hurricanes, E. B. Garriott, Bull. H., U. S. Weather Bureau, Wash., D. C, 1902. 122 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS force of the winds accompanying them. The fall of the barometer in the center of these storms is more rapid and is greater than in the case of tem- perate region cyclones. Their rate of movement is considerably less; this is a fortunate circumstance, as it enables us after once detecting the presence of such storms by means of telegraphic reports to give ample warning of the probable path of the storm. As they recurve northward and enter our lati- tudes, they gradually enlarge their area, at the same time losing in power, and finally merge into the type of temperate region cyclones which originate in the Gulf of Mexico. In the destructive violence of the accompanying winds, the hurricane is second only to the tornado of the Mississippi Valley. The area of disturb- ance in the hurricane is, however, very much larger than that of the tornado. Some idea of the tremendous power exhibited in these tropical storms is sug- gested by Figs. 1 and 2, Plate VII. These illustrations show a portion of the shore of one of the small islands of the Bahama group. The huge rocks seen in the foreground, some of them weighing several tons, were torn up and piled upon the beach by the force of the hurricane winds and waves. The premonitory signs and physical features of hurricanes are well described by Mr, Bigelow in the following paragraph quoted from a paper on " Cyclones, Hurricanes and Tornados " in the Yearbook of the U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture for 1898, at page 531. " The physical features of hurricanes are well understood. The approach of a hurricane is usually indicated by a long swell on the ocean, propagated to great distances and forewarning the observer by two or three days. A faint rise in the barometer occurs before the gradual fall, which becomes very pronounced at the center; fine wisps of cirrus clouds are first seen, which surround the center to a distance of 200 miles; the air is calm and sultry, but this is gradually supplanted by a gentle breeze, and later the wind increases to a gale, the clouds become matted, the sea rough, rain falls, and the winds are gusty and dangerous as the vortex core comes on. Here is the indescribable tempest, dealing destruction, impressing the imagination with its wild exhibition of the forces of nature, the flashes of lightning, the torrents of rain, the cooler air, all the elements in an uproar, which indicate the close approach of the center. In the midst of this turmoil there is a sudden pause, the winds almost cease, the sky clears, the waves, however, rage in great turbulence. This is the eye of the storm, the core of the vortex, and it is, perhaps, twenty miles in diameter, or one-thirtieth of the whole hurricane. The respite is brief, and is followed by the abrupt renewal of the violent wind and rain, but now coming from the opposite direction, and the storm passes off with the several features following each other in the reverse order." The duration and continuity of these storms vary greatly. In his paper THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 133 on West India Hurricanes," ]\Ir. Page describes two storms, one of extreme brevit}^ and another of great duration and length of track. " On the morning of September 2G, 1898, a hurricane of small area but of great intensity was discovered, central to the west of Eleuthera. By the 27th it had reached the coast of Great Abaco, recurving toward the northeast. On the 28th all traces of the storm had disappeared, nor was it again reported. At the opposite extreme stands the Porto Rican hurricane of August, 1899, the path of whose center was traced day after day from its position southwest of the Cape Verde Islands, August 3, westward to the coast of Florida, northward to the Capes of the Chesapeake, and eastward to the center of the Mediterranean sea, the whole trajectory occupying 37 days." Law or Hurricanes. The Eev. Benito Vines, S. J., for many years Director of the observatory at Havana, and a lifelong student of meteorology, devoted much time to the study of West Indian hurricanes. Probably no one was better qualified than he to write with authority concerning the origin and nature of these storms. Father Viiies died in the year 1893. An unpublished manuscript of his, entitled " Investigation of the Cyclonic Circulation and Translatory Move- ment of West Indian Hurricanes," was translated by his friend, Dr. C. Finley, of Havana, and was recently printed by the U. S. Weather Bureau and issued as a special publication."' This pamphlet probably contains the most satisfactory exposition of the laws and phenomena of hurricanes that we have at present. A few of the paragraphs which are appropriate to so brief a sketch are here quoted. One of the most marked of the phenomena attending the progress of these storms, and one of the most difficult to explain, is the parabolic path pursued, and the form and geographical position of the recurving portion of the path. As Father Viiies's explanation of these features embodies also much general in- formation on other interesting points connected with the nature and move- ment of hurricanes, somewhat extended quotations are made from his pamphlet. Theoretical Importance of the Law of Recurving.—" Theoretically speaking this law is so intimately connected with the changes in the sun's declination and with the several positions occupied, according to seasons, by the equatorial zone of calms and rains, by the zones lying on the limits of the trade winds and by the anticyclone of the Atlantic, that, in my opinion, if this law had not been discovered a posteriori we would have to suspect a priori that it existed. ^ West India Hurricanes. By James Page. Hydrogr. Office, Bull. No. Wash., 1901. ^ U. S. Weather Bureau, Publ. No. 168, Wash., 1898. 134 • CLIMATIC CONDITIONS This law is also connected with the changes of direction experienced by the general upper current in the tropical regions. In fact, during the whole year, in Habana, if we except the hurricane season, the upper currents come from the west. In the first half of June and particularly in the second half of October, the cur- rents of the cirrus clouds incline to the south and southwest which is precisely where the cyclones come from at that time of the year, for they reach us as they are about to recurve, or just after recurving. From the end of June to the begin- ning of October, the upper current sets from the east, and this is (without any exception whatever in all the observations that I have made so far) the only time of the year when the cirrus clouds come from that quarter. This fact, when taken in connection with the tracks of the cyclones, is very significant: for, precisely at that time, if a cyclone advances toward Habana, it has necessarily to come from the east, since it must recurve to the north of the tropic and consequently we must receive it in the first branch of its track. On the contrary, excepting in the season just mentioned, in all the rest of the year, the cyclones that pass by Habana, or in its vicinity, are all more or less from the west and never from the east. In fact the cyclones of the end of October all come from the third quadrant, having previously recurved. Those of November, December and January all pass to the north of Habana in a northeast direction, as cyclones moving along the second branch of their track. In all the rest of the year they pass to the north of and at a greater or less distance from Habana more or less in the direction mentioned above. The facts that I have brought forward seem to indicate that the cyclones are directed along their tracks by the upper currents, which to my mind seems highly probable. The law of recurving has also intimate connection with the greater or less cyclonic activity in the West Indian seas during the different months. The maxi- mum and minimum latitudes reached by the recurving point correspond respectively to the maximum and minimum of cyclonic activity. In the second fortnight of August the hurricanes are, in general, more num- erous and more violent; they move along their tracks with greater velocity, reach greater altitudes, and the parabola which they describe is very wide, so that what- ever be the force that, projectile-like, impels the cyclone, its reach and amplitude are greater, and so consequently must be its impulsive energy. Besides, if the general currents direct cyclones in their courses, this fact would denote that at this time of the year these currents attain their maximum activity and reach higher latitudes. The second fortnight of August and the beginning of September are moreover the epochs for simultaneous or twin cyclones; so much so that in 1886, during the last decade of August, there were at one time four cyclones around Habana: One in the island to the east-southeast, one to the northeast, and two more in the Gulf of Mexico. Excepting at this season I only know of three cases of simultaneous cyclones near Habana, one occurring in September and two in October. In July and September the cyclones are less numerous, generally less violent, they move along their tracks with less velocity, are more inclined to the west and describe narrower parabolas. Finally, in June so few cyclones are observed that they are scarcely sufficient to establish a law. In October they are somewhat more numerous, but still few: some are quite intense; they move with but little velocity along the first branch of their track and while recurving. The relative position of the seas and continents appears to have some influ- ence on the recurving of hurricanes, for any one may observe that a great number of the cyclones of August recurve in the Gulf of Charleston without extending to QEOQRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE THE BAHAMA ISLANDS I'^S the continent, and many of those of July and September recurve on the coast of Texas. The laiv of general routes or geographical zones pursued by hurricanes. — It must, of course, be admitted that the tropical cyclones do not form indefinitely at any point within the tropical zones, but that they single out, in preference, for their formation and development, particular and definite regions in those zones. The following geographical conditions, generally, and in a more or less perfect degree, distinguish the cyclonic regions within the Tropics: Large continents lie to the west, indented by numerous gulfs and bays whose coasts run more or less northward and southward, with vast and extensive seas to the east, overspread commonly with numerous islands. Such at any rate are the features that in a more or less perfect degree concur in the cyclonic regions of the Philippine Isles and in the China Sea, in the seas of India, and also in the Southern Hemisphere, in the region situated east of Africa, in the vicinity of the islands of Madagascar, Mauritius, Reunion, Rodriguez, etc. But of all the cyclonic regions within the intertropical zone the one which more perfectly and grandly combined all these conditions is the great " Bay of North America," with its wide Atlantic Ocean extending to the east as far as the coast of Africa and to the northeast as far as the coast of Europe and the northern seas. In my opinion this contributes much to the grandeur and regularity of the immense paths of the West Indian cyclones. A cyclone of August or September may form in the vicinity of the Cape Verde Islands, near the coast of Africa, or to the east of the Lesser Antilles, cross the Atlantic along the first branch of its track, and recurve either in the Gulf of Charleston or on the coast of Texas. In the latter case it may cross the United States in the direction of Cape Hatteras, sweep, with renewed strength and velocity, a second time across the Atlantic, in a northeastward direction, and enter Europe or be lost in the northern seas. We have, then, a series of cyclones which describe immense tracks over many thousands of miles with admirable regularity and normality, and subject to general laws. This is truly surprising and astounding. I do not believe that on the face of the globe there is another region where cyclones are met with that can compare with those of the West Indies, or, rather, I should say, with those of the great Bay of North America. Neither is there within the whole intertropical zone a grander bay than this one, nor one which offers more favorable conditions for the development and onward progress of gyratory storms. The Bay of North America comprises, as I understand, that part of the Atlantic to the west of the fifty-fifth meridian (longitude west of Greenwich) from New- foundland to Dutch Guiana. It is bounded on the east by the said meridian and on the north, west and south by the coasts of Newfoundland, Labrador, and Gulf of St. Lawrence, by the coasts of the Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Sea from Yucatan to Dutch Guiana. It embraces the West Indies, the Caribbean Sea. the Gulf of Mexico, the Bahamas, the Bermudas, and the Gulfs of Charleston and of the St. Lawrence. Law of the relative velocity of translation. — We can divide the cyclonic track into three parts: First branch; recurve; second branch. Having made this divi- sion, I shall now formulate the law. In the first branch of the track, from the origin of the cyclone to the vicinity of the recurve, the velocity of translation is generally slightly on the increase. In the vicinity of the recurve the hurricane moderates the velocity of its advance, which reaches its minimum in the recurve. Finally, the velocity of translation is rapidly on the increase in the second branch, and attains a maximum of moi-e than 30 and even 40 miles per hour." EXPLORATION OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE AT NASSAU, NEW PROVIDENCE, BY MEANS OF KITES EXPLORATION OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE AT NASSAU, NEW PROVIDENCE, BY MEANS OF KITES^ BY OLIVER L. FASSIG, Ph. D., Section Director of the U. S. Weather Bureau, at Baltimore, Md. INTRODUCTION. Included in the equipment of the Bahama Expedition of the Geographical Society of Baltimore was a complete outfit for investigating on a small scale the conditions of the upper atmosphere. This apparatus was loaned to the Director of the Expedition by the Chief of the Weather Bureau. It consisted of one medium-sized and one large box kite (Plate XVI, Fig. 2, and Plate XVII, Fig. 1), two meteorographs (Plate XVI, Figs. 1 and ^), a liand reel with 15,000 feet of steel piano wire, and a nephoscope for altitude measure- ments. In addition, the instrumental equipment included a Eichard barograph, a thermograph, and a hygrograph, a sling psychrometer, a rain gage, and a rain recorder, the property of the Maryland State Weather Service. Head winds and rough weather caused considerable delay and incon- venience on the outward voyage, and the Expedition did not reach Nassau until the 17th of June. Through the courtesy of Mr. H. M. Flagler, the use of the grounds and clubhouse connected with the Colonial Hotel was kindly granted for the kite experiments. These grounds were by far the most suitable place to be found in the vicinity of Nassau for the purpose, being one of the few open stretches of field upon the entire Island. Situated west of the town of Nas- sau, along the northern coast of the Island and just below the ruins of old Fort Charlotte, the field afforded a free sweep of the air in the direction of the prevailing easterly winds of these latitudes. The Island of New Providence, upon which Nassau is situated, is a small island, measuring less than 20 miles from east to west and about 7 or 8 miles from north to south at its widest point. It lies about 150 miles to the east of the southern point of Florida, in latitude 25° north, longitude 77° 30' west, along the northern edge of the trades. ^ These results were first published in the Monthly Weather Review, U. S. Weather Bureau for Dec, 1903. 9 130 EXPLORATION OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE Several days were spent in unpacking and mounting the meteorological instruments and the kites, and in waiting for favorable winds. It was not until the 27th of June that the wind seemed of sufficient strength to warrant an attempt to raise a kite. At this season of the year winds above 10 miles per hour cannot be counted on daily, excepting for short periods. Beginning at sunrise with a breeze of 5 or 6 miles from the east-southeast, the strength increased by noon to 8 or 9 miles, with occasional higher velocities, but seldom exceeded 15 miles per hour. To one accustomed to the rapid and extreme fluctuations of temperate zone weather, the tropical conditions appear monotonously uniform; clear skies with intense sunshine; a few patches of loosely formed cumulus clouds; an occasional shower of short duration; a small range of the thermometer, generall}^, at this season, keeping within the limits of 80° and 90°; these are conditions which may repeat themselves day after day for long periods. Though the direct sunshine is intense, the atmosphere is not excessively op- pressive, being moderately dry and seldom stagnant. So far as personal comfort is concerned, these conditions are less trying than the warm, muggy days of the coastal plain of the Middle Atlantic States. In these Islands there is generally a sufficient breeze for comfort when not exposed to the direct rays of the sun; from the warm, moist and stagnant atmosphere of the Middle States there is often no escape, even under the shelter of roof or tree. DESCRIPTION OF FLIGHTS. A preliminary flight was made on June 27, between 11 a. m. and 1 p. m., using the smaller 7-foot kite. The wind was east-southeast, and blowing with a velocity of about 10 miles per hour. No effort was made to reach any con- siderable height, the main purpose being to test the kite and apparatus. The maximum elevation was slightly over 1000 feet. In all of the experiments conducted at Nassau, the kite meteorograph was checked by means of an aneroid barometer and a sling psychrometer at the surface just before the kite was raised, and at short intervals until the close of the flight. In addition, the barograph, thermograph and hygrograph were installed in the Nassau Cable Office, about three-fourths of a mile distant, by the courtesy of Mr. P. H. Burns, Superintendent of the Bahamas Cable; these instruments in turn were checked frequently by means of eye observations of the thermometers and mercurial barometer at the Cable Office. GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 133 EXPLORATION OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE On July 1 the kite was raised at 10 a. m. and not lowered until nearly 5 p. m. The wind was east-southeast, with a velocity of 15 miles, until 1 p. m., when the ^'elocity fell to 11 miles, which was maintained until the end of the flight. The day was marked by an unusual amount of cloudiness, varying be- tween five and seven-tenths, mostly cumulus, with a few alto-cumulus. A light scud occasionally passed under the kite. On several occasions the kite was en- tirely obscured, being sometimes in the ])assing cloud and sometimes above it. The greatest elevation attained was al)0ut "2600 feet at 12.23 p. m., with a tem- perature at the kite of 09°, and a surface temperature of 83°. The atmos- pheric pressure, as registered on the kite meteorograph, was 37.60 inches, and at the surface 30.03 inches. It was with considerable difficulty that the kite was maintained at the higher elevations. The tracings of the kite meteor- ograph (see Figs. 3, 3, 4) show constant fluctuations, doubtless largely due to frequent reeling and unreeling in attempts to increase the altitude of the kite, but in a measure also to be attributed to variation in the strength of the wind. On the following day, July 3. the larger 9-foot kite was launched. The wind was from the east-southeast, and unsteady, with a velocity varying be- tween 8 and 10 miles per hour; the sky was from three to four-tenths clouded. Not much was to be expected under these conditions. The greatest elevation slightly exceeded 2500 feet. The kite was raised shortly after 3 p. m., and lowered a little before p. m. The lowest temperature recorded at the kite was 70°, with 8--)° at the surface: the pressure fell from 30.03 inches at the surface to 37.00 iuclies at the higliest level. The same irregularities in the meteorograph tracings are to be found in the records of this ascent as were noted in the previous ascent. In fact this is a characteristic of all of the tracings, which would seem to point to a rapid falling off in wind velocity above a moderate elevation. The next ascent was attempted late in the afternoon of July 3, between 5 and 8 p. m. (Plate XVII, Fig. 1). A good strong wind was blowing from the east-southeast, the weather conditions were unsettled, the cloudiness varying from five to seven-tenths cumulus and cumulo-nimbus. A squall arose about 0.30 p. m.. with a short shower of rain, during whicli my colleague and myself sought shelter in the clubhouse. The rain and squall lasted from ten to fifteen minutes. The kite wire was carefully grounded, but small discharges of atmos- pheric electricity were several times felt. We had no facilities for measuring the potential. l)ut the shocks experienced now and then on accidental contact with the wire were not severe, even on the approach of the squall. The kite THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 133 reached an elevation of nearly 4000 feet, and was maintained at a high elevation for fully two hours without much manipulation of the reel. Tlie kite behaved well from ascent to landing, aud an interesting and valuable record was looked 3FM. 4 S 6FM. ■ m — -m^- • — m:m- ^t/- ^ ^ <.f^^ ^^ /^n *-^-*-^^^^ OU .x-^-^f 1 — L . '■l^^AY:_ /f 7)^ 7 yT fu J.JLKt. ■^ - -Oz/^ 1/. 1 Fig. 3. — Nassau, Bahama Islands. Record made in flight of July 2, 1903, 3 to 6 p. m. for; but to our dismay on examining the meteorograph it was found that the clock had stopped within fifteen minutes after the beginning of the ascent. Save for the maximum and minimum points of pressure, temperature, and humidity, and the altitude observations, there was no record of one of the 134 EXPLORATION OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE most interesting of the six ascents made during our stay at Xassau. The lowest temperature recorded was 65°, with a surface temperatirre of T8° ; the lowest pressure was 26.30 inches, with 30.03 inches at the surface. On the day preceding our departure from iSTassau, namely, on July 6, we determined to try the experiment of flying one of our kites from the deck of a moving vessel. The practicability of this method had already been fully demonstrated by Mr. Eotch, Director of the Blue Hill Observatory, near Boston, and by others who followed his initiative, in the North Atlantic waters. We hoped by this method of artificially " raising a Irroeze "' to attain a higher altitude than we had reached in the light land winds, and at the same time counted upon adding to our knowledge of the temperature and humidity con- ditions over the ocean in these latitudes. There was very little material to select from in the way of steam locomotion, wind being the motive power for practically all the water craft in this vicinity. The choice lay between a large and powerful steam tug belonging to the company running the regular line of steamers between New York, Nassau, and Havana, but for which a pro- hibitive charge was demanded, and a small steam launch used for conveying passengers across the channel to a pleasure resort on Hog Island. The smaller vessel was chosen. At 11 a. m. we left the harbor of Nassau on the Alicia with the larger of the two kites and the complete outfit. The party accompany- ing me comprised, in addition to the crew of three men, my colleague, Mr. J. E. Eouth, who took charge of tlie nephoscope for the altitude observations, Eev. ]\rr. Lament, who acted as recorder, and two natives at the reel. Leaving the channel we steamed out to the north of Hog Island, a long and narrow strip of land lying to the north of the Island of New Providence. Going a mile or two beyond land, we steamed into the wind with a velocity of about 5 to 6 knots an hour. The boat was small and somewhat top-heavy, and there was a considerable ground-swell; between the rolling and pitcliing of the boat and the resulting physiological effects it was with difficulty that we Icept ourselves and the reel right side up. Barring a slight delay caused by the snapping, at the moment of ascent, of the small steel safety line attached to the kite, which had to be replaced by a piece of twine, there were no hitches or accidents. The kite rose swiftly and steadily to an elevation of about 4000 feet. With a vessel of greater speed we could doubtless have reached a higher elevation. The surface wind was about 12 miles per hour; to this we added about 5 miles, the speed of our launch. It seems doubtful from our experience during five ascents, whether it would be possible greatly to exceed this limit at this season THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 135 of the year without the aid of an artificial wind, even by means of additional kites. There is apparently a diminution of wind velocity above the elevation of about 4000 feet, in this respect differing from the conditions in the tem- FiG. 4. — Nassau, Bahama Islands. Record made on board the steam launch Alicia. July 6, 1903, 11 a. m. to 1 p. m. perate latitudes, where the velocity steadily increases up to the limits thus far attained. This supposition is also borne out by observations of the few upper clouds seen during our stay of five or six weeks in these latitudes. A few clouds of the upper layer were observed, but their sliglit northward motion 136 EXPLORATION OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE was to be detected only after the most careful observations by means of the nephoscope. The lowest temperature recorded during the ascent of the 6th was 63°, with a surface temperature of 83°; the lowest barometric pressure was 26.40 inches, with a surface reading of 30.05 inches. The humidity ranged from 73 per cent at the surface to 98 per cent. A portion of the record was lost owing to the stopping of the clock a few minutes before the highest elevation was reached, but practically all the record during the ascending branch of the curve was intact. The kite left the boat at 11.10 a. m., reached its greatest elevation at 12.20 p. m., and was lowered at 1.12 p. m. The surface wind was east-southeast throughout, as during all preceding flights. The kite varied but little in azimuth from that of the surface wind; however, there was always a slight change to a more southerly direction of the wind in the region of the kite. The east-southeast wind carried the kite beyond the limits of the Island in all but the firsf ascent. In the subsequent and higher elevations the kite was always a considerable distance beyond the coast line over the sea. In view of this fact and the small size of the Island, all of the observations may be regarded practically as ocean conditions, excepting those recorded within the first two or three hundred feet from the surface. TEMPERATURE RESULTS. The rates of decrease in temperature from the surface to an elevation of approximately 4000 feet are presented in tabular form, and charted in Figs. 5 and 6. Observations on the nephoscope for angular elevation of the kite, and readings of the dial on the reel for length of wire out, were made by Mr. Eouth every five to ten minutes and sometimes more frequently. From these records and from the tracings of the kite meteorograph, averages were computed and plotted for each 100 feet and each 500 feet of elevation. The actual decrease in each 500 feet, the rate of decrease per 1000 feet, and the number of feet of elevation causing a decrease of 1° F. are shown in the following table: TEMPERATURE DECREASE. AVERAGE OF FOUR ASCENTS AND SEVENTY OBSERVATIONS. Elevation in feet 500 1000 1600 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 Mean. Departure from surface tem- perature, degrees 5 7 9 11 13 16 IS 20 Rate of decrease per 1000 feet, degrees 10.0 7.0 6.0 5.5 5.2 5.2 3.1 5.1 6.1 Number of feet per 1° decrease in temperature 100 143 167 182 192 192 196 196 164 QEOORAPHICAL 90CIFTY OF BALTIMORE THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 137 mev Feet TempeTature Decrease iviih Altitude above Sea Level. ^lev. Temperature 92°64°66°68' 64° 66° 68' 70° 78° 74° 76 '78° dO°aZ°84.° \Feei\ SOO 600 400 SOO 3000 SOO 600 400 SOO Zooo 600 600 400 ZOO JOOO 600 600 aoo 200 ~ ' ~~ -] r -\ 7 - - 4000 L 1 1 1 N j-Yf 'i*^ \ ,fti f'/ .^r^ 600 \, \. N 400 ^ ^ \ , oirfl ^'"ir^i 1 \ ■)r 7 '4 f- T \'6'. \ }' / zt ? } SC \ V \ \ \ \ y N \ 400 V > \ : , vl 1 "_u ^ t- I l5 : \ •N 1 dOOO ' vv 1 ■'!. '. \ s . ° \ \ 1 s , s " t ■c k 'V V \ " 3 •yw^^T'i - •N \ \ 74:^761 w aoj: Hy f 4'' \ " t k 'v N ' 3 \ \ ^ I s \ 1000 s v \ \ L ' aOO k S • N A " \ \ , \ '. * ■^ - r \ «, s ^ 3 4O0 ^ *. S N s, ^^ ■V, ^ , s J '^; "5 ^ i '•, \ y-i d 78' 80' 82' S4' 36 TemperaOo-e 70° 72° 74° 76' 78° 80' 8Z° a4\ \70"72°74° 76'7a'ao'3i "" 84"I&nperKitur-e FvlU linrs: ctscen-t. Dotted. lz.rtes : dascertt . | Fig. 5. — Nassau, Bahama Islands. Based on records of June 27 to July 6, 1903. Feet J'resBur^e . ( b) ^6 Z7 28 29 SOinches. Feet "S 1 T'^ ' ^ aooo ,500 3000 500 20OO SOO lOOO SOO it ^ 1 "' ~ vt ~- r \ e: 1 _-^ L \ 1 ^ " i^ " k- " ID " f " ^-.^ Ii:^" , it ^^ \ ; j- - -SI- i ^ 1 / - \^ H,' , ( \ 1 \ I " zz.\ t. j V : t;N __ , __ - \ Si- ; 1 "T s ^ _!:"" S± " ^I i _ 1 - -ji J \ " "~ ex < ^^ 5 y A^^ 7 ^ I t- ' '^'\. 1 3 _ _i - ±i--\ I \ ->! V *^ ^ ^ ' .1 s ^5 V ^ ,1 s, r "^ . N ^u._ i > \ t s \ / ^ h I "60' 65° 70' 76 Tempe r-ot 6iz T'e . 80° ( a So so sa ' «2 ao i ^o . da ^-a o O o S P^ > M :j p. ct. P. ct. p. ct. p. Ct. P. Ct. p. ct. P. Ct. P. ct. 9390 Mangrove Cay, Andros. White coral sand to 12 inches. 11.73 4.82 36.88 18.74 27.12' 3.66 3.08 5.60 9403 North Shore, Cat Island. White coral sand to 12 inches. 10.48 7.98 44.34 23.30 15.90 1.28 3.54 3.48 It will be seen from the above table that about four-fifths of the soil is composed of coarse sands, with less amounts of medium and fine sands, and about 4 per cent of clay. It will be noticed, too, that the organic matter is high as compared with that of other soils. It may be said that this organic matter is not apparent in the field, and no doubt comes from the animal remains in the minute shells which are so numerous in the soil. The chemical analysis of a composite sample of this soil type shows the following results: PRINCIPAL PLANT FOOD CONSTITUENTS IN CORAL SAND. By acid digestion (HCl sp. gr. L115). Constituent. Per cent. Phosphoric acid (P2O5) 076 Lime ( CaO) 50.810 Potash (KoO) .306 Nitrogen (N) .12? Besides the large amount of lime, the most striking feature presented by the above figures is the small amount of nitrogen (.127 per cent) in compari- son with the large content of organic matter (10.5 to 12 per cent). The per- centages of potash and phosphoric acid compare favorably with those usually found in productive continental soils. THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 157 PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS IN WATER SOLUBLE SALTS FROM CORAL SAND. (1 part soil to 5 parts water.) B c Location. Crop conditions, etc. Parts per million of air-dried soil. S 3 a o a as 5 : li a a, 05 -a S . ftO) 3 CO 9390 9403 8 .15 Mangrove Cay, Andros. North Shore, Cat Island. Nassau, New Providence. Mangrove Cay, Andros. 0-15 in. Vegetable garden. Considered good. Fresh water which rises and falls with tide, said to be reach- ed 24 in. beneath surface. Sand. 0-12 in. From nar- row coastal plain. Garden truck growing on it. Sisal will not grow. In corn, potatoes, tomatoes, etc. Considered good field. 17.4 28.7 90.3 147.6 9.2 12.8 140.4 199.8 13.7 3.2 31.1 41.2 13.1 17.2 17.5 13.6 7.0 21.0 Tr. Tr. NoTE.^Analyses of samples Nos. 8 and 15 were made on fresh soil in the field, while those of Nos. 9390 and 9403 were made in the laboratory, several months later, on air-dry samples. The above results show that these soils are amply supplied with soluble phosphates as compared with the soils of the Eastern United States. The amounts of chlorides indicated by the two cases in which this substance was sought are somewhat larger than is usually found in the soils of humid conti- nental areas, but not large enough to be considered as seriously detrimental. The amounts of potassium are large in samples Nos. 8 and 15, which were examined almost immediately after being taken from the field, but in samples Nos. 9390 and 9-103, which were not examined until after they had become air-dry, are about normal as compared with continental soils. A large amount of water soluble potassium seems to be characteristic of tropical island soils and has generally been observed in soils from other localities than the Baha- mas. The discrepancy between the amounts of nitrates in the fresh and the dried samples is apparently also characteristic, and iti situ this soil is probably very abundantly supplied with this important plant-food constituent. Bahama Black Loam. The Bahama Black Loam, or "provision" land, as it is locally known, varies from a loose brown to a jet-black loam. The typical soil consists of rounded grains of coral sand with a large percentage of organic matter. A phase of this type is considerably more sandy, consisting of disintegrated rock 158 SOILS AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS and wind-blown sand, and containing less organic matter. This soil is quite shallow, generally only a few inches deep, except where there has been special opportunity for accumulation. The Bahama Black Loam is the principal type on all the islands, occupy- ing approximately three-fourths of their area, while some of the smaller islands are almost entirely covered by it. It covers the hills of the interior and the slopes leading to the coast, wliere it passes into the Coral Sand. Where the coast is abrupt it extends to the edge of the cliffs. It occupies, therefore, the rougher portions of the surface. The rock outcrop is prominent; in fact, the exposed rock forms the greater part of the surface, the soil filling the depres- sions in the weathered rock and between the exposed boulders. Its elevated position gives it perfect drainage, the water either flowing from the surface, or, as is most common, filtering easily through the shallow soil into the underlying porous rock. The loss of moisture by evaporation is also great, so that the soil is subject to drought, rarely keeping in a moist condition long at a time, where crops requiring clean cultivation are grown. The use of cover crops, or mulches, particularly at dry periods, would do mucli to con- serve the soil moisture. However, considering its shallowness, the soil retains moisture fairly well, owing to its large content of organic matter. This soil occurs where the rock has weathered, leaving the surface in the condition known as " plate rock," that is, where the surface of the underlying rock is fiat, or nearly so. Where this plate rock occupies a low position, the land is known as " plate-rock scrub," but the soil differs little from that on higher elevations. Brackish ponds are numerous in the lower areas, and probably the soil is not quite so good for crops because of the nearness of the underlying salt water. This soil is mostly of residual origin, being derived from the weathering of the underlying coralline rock. The process has been largely one of solution, the residue being small in amount and consequently the resulting soil forma- tion slow. The wind has also assisted in forming this soil, by carrying the sand from the beaches inland, where it has fallen into the depressions and pockets in the rock. Vegetation has sprung up, and by its decay a loamy soil lias gradually formed, until finally a heavier plant growth could be supported. The depth of the soil is dependent upon the depth of the pocket or depression where it occurs. Usually these depressions are shallow and basin-shaped, rarely exceeding one foot in depth. In the larger solution holes, known as *' banana holes," the Bahama Black Loam has been washed in until it has a THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 159 considerable depth. Occasionally, in the lower situations, where the soil has evidently been washed from higher ground, it is found to be a foot or more in depth, and free from stones. The stony character of the soil makes cultivation difficult. jSTo improved implements can be used, and the spade and hoe are the only ones that can be employed to advantage. This type is used mostly for the production of the subsistence crops; hence the popular name of " provision land." Upon it are grown the vege- tables and fruits which form the food of the people, and also constitute some of the exports. These consist of potatoes, sweet cassava, onions and other vegetables, citrus and other fruits, including shaddocks (grape fruit) and oranges. Indian corn is also grown in small quantities. To all of these crops the soil is well adapted, except in the dryer situations. This soil is considered the best type on the Islands for the production of citrus fruits, and it is upon this that the industry has been developed. Since the growing of oranges has been partly abandoned, the grape fruit has taken the lead among the citrus fruits. All the fruits are of excellent quality, con- sidering the varieties grown. The sisal fiber industry was also developed on this soil type. The sisal plant does well where any care at all is given to its cultivation, except in low- lying or wet areas. Large areas of this land were cleared for the production of this crop, and sisal plantations of several thousand acres in extent are to be seen. Cotton grows luxuriantly in this soil, and upon this Black Loam it >vas cultivated in the early days. The plant grows treelike, and pruning is neces- sary to keep it within reach and to make it bear. The life of the plant extends over several seasons. All other plants grow luxuriantly upon the Bahama Black Loam, and espe- cially in the virgin soil. The coppice is large and thick, and the land is often called " big coppice land," to distinguish it from types supporting less vigorous growths. Although at first productive, the yields soon decrease, possibly from a lack of sufficient soil to support crops continuously. Just as soon as cultiva- tion is discontinued, the land reverts to natural coppice growth, which attains a height of 15 to 20 feet. The larger growth consists of lignum vitae, mahog- any, mastic, logwood and some other trees and bushes. This soil has an excellent texture, and the only hindrance to its cultiva- tion is the existence of the rock outcrops. Because of its stony nature and difficult cultivation, it is best adapted to orchard fruits. These do best wliere 160 SOILS AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS holes for the trees are blasted and filled in with soil. The use of thick cover crops, grown in the latter part of the wet season, and cut and left on the ground for a mulch, is recommended, as tending to conserve the moisture through the dry season. The use of seaweed or any other refuse would be Ijeneficial to this soil, particularly as a mulch. Very little fertilizer of any kind is used in the growing of cultivated crops on this soil. The greater part of this type is allowed to remain in the native coppice growth. The mechanical analyses of three samples of this soil are given in the table below : MECHANICAL ANALYSES OF BAHAMA BLACK LOAM. . o o H lO H S H d 10 o d R H "O \^ o §a o loa No. Locality. Description. B o d 1 > c EC ■a o ¥ ia .a© OiO 8 *:a §a .5© O P. ct. d5 o s ^ > OS o p. ct. p. ct. p. ct. p. ct. p. ct. p. ct. P. ct. 9393 Current Settlement Eleuthera. Black loam to 4 inches. 10.11 1.90 15 46 17.60 28.38 7.80 15.36 13.24 9399 Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera. Loose black loam to 3 Inches. 32.02 12.16 i 10.76 15.74 37.84 11.04 16.10 5.92 9405 Bight Settlement, Cat Island. Loose black loam to 6 inches. 22.97 1.24 j 4.66 4.94 23.62 11.40 32.52 21.56 The above analyses show the soil to be composed of about two-thirds sand, with the remainder consisting of a little more silt than clay particles. The organic matter content is extremely high, as would be expected. The chemical analysis of a composite sample of this soil type is given in the following table : PRINCIPAL PLANT FOOD CONSTITUENTS IN BAHAMA BLACK LOAM. By acid digestion (HCl sp. gr. 1.11.5.). Constituent. Per cent. Phosphoric acid (P0O5) 085 Lime ( CaO) 790 Potash ( K2O ) 725 Nitrogen (N) 341 This soil would seem to be amply supplied with phosphoric acid, and to contain unusually abundant amounts of the other desirable constituents as compared with continental soils. GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XXVII Fig. 1. — VIEW ok tines barke.ns, new providence Pig. 2. — view of jungle growth, new providence VIEWS ILLUSTRATING AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS THE BAHAMA ISLAXDS 161 PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS IN WATER-SOLUBLE SALTS FROM BAHAMA BLACK LOAM. (1 part soil to 5 parts water.) »4 1 a "E a Parts per million of air-dried soil. Location. Crop conditions, etc. S ¥■ o Calcium Ca. * n asO 5 04 . ti ccCL .a 2 '■J 01 -M as i ■ao 9 9405 Bight Settlement, Cat Island. Loose black loam, 0-6 in., taken on a ridge. Sisal growing and doing well. 139. 'i 144.1 2.1 18.3 503.0 61.7 9393 Current Settle- ment, Eleu- thera. Fine black loam 0-4 in. Orange orchard. Land is droughty. 14.4 29.2 19.0 15.8 21.0 Tr. 9399 Tarpum Bay, Eleuthora. Loose black loam 3 in. Taken in a shallow basin. Heavy bush growth. 44.3 30.0 5.2 20.8 49.0 Tr. 3 Orange Hill. New Providence. Grape fruit orchard. Good condition. 203.1 259.0 234.6 16.5 4 Near Lake Cun- ningham, New Providence. Small valley; deep soil, washed from higher eleva- tion: used as vegetable garden. 164.5 116.0 153.7 17.7 11 Nassau, New Providence. Black loamy soil from ba- nana hole. 93.8 227.0 61.8 22.7 Note. — Analyses of samples Nos. 3, 4 and 11 were made on fresh soil in the field, while those of Nos. 9405, 9393 and 9399 were made in the laboratory, several months later, on air- dry samples. From the above figures it would seem that the type is very rich in water- soluble (and therefore readily available), mineral plant-foods. The phos- phates in both fresh and air-dried samples are quite high, as is the potassium with one exception. The soil is also very rich in nitrates, the two low figures from air-dried samples having probably no significance as to the conditions in situ. There are indications, however, that in places the soil might contain injurious amounts of soluble chlorides, although not in quantities which could not be readily removed by draining. Bahama Stony Loam. The Bahama Stony Loam, or '' pine-barren land," was mapped only on New Providence, and was found to cover nearly three-fourths of that island. The type is really a variation of the Bahama Black Loam, but because of its extensive area, its different vegetation and physiographic features, and the general condition of the soil, it has been regarded as a separate type. The soil consists of a very large proportion of rock fragments, with fine earth in 11 162 SOILS AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS the interstices, being similar in appearance to that of the black or " provision " land, and consisting of a brown to blackish loam. Laboratory analysis also shows its texture and organic matter content to be about the same. The pine-barren land occupies low, level positions, becoming swampy in the lower places in wet seasons. The underlying rock has weathered in the manner characteristic of low areas generally. The pockets are not so deep as in the areas of scrub land, and the intervening partitions are thinner, and more or less broken down, causing the irregular-shaped fragments to fill the pockets and give a large percentage of stony material. The surface of the intervening ledges is very ragged. Disintegration, as well as solution, has been an important factor in the formation of this soil. Besides the large area on Xew Providence, the pine-barren land occupies large areas on Andros and Abaco Islands. But as these islands were not mapped the exact extent of the type is not known. The characteristic vege- tation is pine. The trees, which as a rule do not exceed 8 inches in diameter, seldom rise to a height of more than 35 feet. On the wetter areas the scrub palmetto grows, and on some of the higher and better drained portions, where the proportion of rock fragments is less and the soil is more like Bahama Black Loam, there is a fair coppice growth. Where fires are not allowed to burn over the barrens there is an undergrowth of low, scrubby bushes, ferns and sedges. Agriculturally the pine-barren land is of little value. Some use is made of the small pine timber, and quantities of charcoal are burned. Formerly some turpentine was obtained from these trees. At one time it was thought, the pine-barren land would be suitable for the growing of sisal, but the soil proved but poorly adapted to this crop. The mechanical analysis of the fine earth of this soil type is given in the subjoined table: MECHANICAL ANALYSES OF BAHAMA STONY LOAM. 01 a s d, 0.5 m. .25 to sand, 5 mm. 0.005 to m. No. Locality. Description. S3 a o a 1 o i -d H ® _ So o o ya *lO pO 'SB o a© •1 > o +^ 6 a ga p. ct. p. ct. P. ct. p. ct. p. ct. p. Ct. P. ct. p. ct. 9415 Abaco Island. Dark brown loam to |21.54 4 inches. 1 4.26 12.74 7.30 17.20 24.82 24.30 9.22 THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 163 PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS IN WATER-SOLUBLE SALTS FROM BAHAMA STONY LOAM. (1 part soil to 5 parts water.) a Parts per million of air-dried soil. Location. Crop Conditions, etc. a 3 S o ?o <^ 5 p « 5 s Ph ECO DlSl ^ M w izi rnn a X M s OJ e8 05 cS -S a a s 3 ^ cS ci •> J £ as as Vi EH « O o GO < o M Pm <5 o THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 165 could not better be replaced b}' a more diversified system of cropping, in which tlie pineapple would be cultivated in a rotation of several 3^ears. With such a system, and in view of the large quantities of soluble mineral matter found in the soil, a much reduced application of fertilizers would probably be re- quired. This subject is certainly worthy of an experimental investigation on this type of soil, and perhaps also on other types. AVhile the soil is naturally retentive of moisture, it suffers from drought during prolonged dry periods. This is principally due to the comparatively shallow soil and the presence of porous rock beneath. Every precaution should be taken to conserve the soil moisture. The coppice growth is heavy, and similar to that on the Bahama Black Loam. Mechanical analyses of typical samples from the different islands are given in the table below : MECHANICAL ANALYSES OF BAHAMA RED LOAM. No. [.ooality. Description. u a '3 o a B H s > u s •a H ami So o o 10 d •g'B ge "lO Fine sand, 0.25 to 0.1 ram. Very fine sand, 0.1 to 0.06 mm. Silt, 0.05 to 0.005 mm. ge Or-t 'I 3 p. ct. i P. Ct. p. ct. 1 p. ct. P. ct. P. ct. P. ct. p. ct. 9392 Bluff Settlement, Elcuthera. Dark red loam to 8 inches. 8.18 3.00 15.40 10.82 22.80 10.80 19.00 18.04 9396 Gregory Town, Eleuthera. Dark reddish brown loam or clay loam to 10 inches. 8.06 1.66 9.36 11.44 20.84 7.98 18.02 30.64 9397 Greerory Town, Eleuthera. Heavy loam or clay loam to 8 inches. 4.95 2.20 6.28 6.76 22.10 11.24 19.90 31.52 9398 Governor's Har- bor, Eleuthera. Heavy loam to clay loam to 6 inches. 5.16 0.86 5.38 6.42 20.52 10.68 22.52 33.52 9404 Bight Settlement. Cat Island. Red clay loam to 12 inches. 2.60 0.60 5.00 7.48 23.84 15.90 22.14 2478 9407 Bailey Town, Cat Island. Heavy loam to clay loam to 8 inches. 6.05 1.92 10.16 9.98 20.50 11.60 17.28 28.66 9410 Bailey Town. Cat Island. Loam to clay loam to 8 inches. 4.30 3.06 12.66 10.20 17.70 10.04 20.96 25.30 9412 Watlings Island. Loam to clay loam to 5.62 1.60 6.82 7.78 14.98 10.22 34.92 23.64 8 inches. i The texture, as shown in the above table, is very similar to that of the lighter limestone soils of the United States. The Bahama soil is, however, as a rule, more loamy, but after it has been worked for some time it becomes compact, and the surface cracks upon drying. The introduction of more organic matter, as by green manuring, would probably be found beneficial and ultimately profitable. 166 SOILS AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS The following chemical analysis was made from a composite sample from all the islands : PRINCIPAL PLANT FOOD CONSTITUENTS IN BAHAMA RED LOAM. By acid digestion ( HCl sp. gr. 1.115). Constituent Per Cent. Piiosplioi'ic acid (P2O5) -165 Lime (CaO) 6.380 Potasli (KoO) 418 Nitrogen (N) 043 These figures indicate a satisfactory reserve supply of phosphoric acid and potash in this type of soil, and, of course, an ample amount of lime. The amount of nitrogen is a fairly satisfactory one. PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS IN WATER-SOLUBLE SALTS FROM BAHAMA RED LOAM. (1 part soil to 5 parts water.) .0 Parts per million of air-dried soil. c Location. Crop conditions, etc. a a . 01 (D ® . rj ^ 'O ■*-* . ft 1« .5 35 03O 0.0 'Sr-I Co •«• ^0 a «o .^Z 2" ftSQ 03 "s J3 J3 3 Oi Ph "-J ^ t) CB 9396 Gregory Town, Eleuthera. Reddish brown heavy loam to 10 in. Slight depres- sion on upland. In jtine- apples and doing well. Fer- tilized. 23.2 17.8 26.3 13.7 17.6 Tr. 9397 Gregory Town, Eleutiiera. Heavy loam to clay loam to 8 in. from upland. Pine- apples—excellent growth and productive. Highly fertilized. 17.4 9.2 4.2 15.8 14.0 Tr. 9398 Governors H ar- bor, Elenthera. Loam to 6 in. Pineapple field— productive. Highly fertilized. 130.2 42.1 2.6 14.2 154.8 Tr. 9404 Bight Settlement, Cat Island. Heavy loam or clay loam to 12 in. Soil deeper than common. Sisal doing well. 21.2 13..5 1.6 11.4 42.0 Tr. 9406 Columbus Bluff, Cat Island. Pineapple, doing well. Fer- tilized. 71.7 129.3 9410 Bailey Town, Cat Island. Heavy loam or clay loam to 8 in. Pineapples. Fer- tilized. 90.4 64.4 6.3 14.8 225.1 36.0 9412 AVatllngs Island. Heavy red loam or clay loam to 8 in. Covered by bush. 10.9 15.7 10.6 13.1 7.(» 11.5 1 Near Orange Hill, New Providence Pineapples. Good. 176.2 146.7 91.7 4.2 2 Near Lake Killar- ney. New Provi- dence Pineapples. Good. 210.6 76.8 76.8 6.2 5 Near liake Cun- ningham, New Providence. Pineapples, not doing well. 176.4 92.3 27.5 16.5 6 Near I^ake Cun- Same field, but where pine- 207.3 173.4 33.8 3.5 ' ningham, New apples were doing well. Providence. 7 Near Lake Cun- ningham, New Providence. Do. 238.2 225.8 55.8 6.2 10 Near Nassau, New Providence Newly cleared field. 109. 159.7 72.7 15.1 12 Near Nassau, New Pineapple field. Good. 97.5 252.9 29.9 19.1 Providence. Note. — Analyses of samples ranging from Nos. 1 to 12 were made on fresh soil in the field, while those numbered above 9000 were made in the laboratory, several months later, on air-dry samples. THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 167 The above figures show considerable variations in the case of ever}' con- stituent. In no case, however, are they lower than figures which have been obtained for soils in the United States of known high productiveness. How far these variations in the figures may be due to artificial fertilizing, it is im- possible to say, although it is probable that they are mainly due to this cause. One might a priori have expected a nearer approach to uniformity in this soil, in virgin condition, than in any other type occurring in the Islands. There is a warning indicated in the chlorine figures, either that excessive fertiliza- tion is being practiced or that drainage may, in some localities, be desirable. Bahama Marl. The Bahama Marl, or " scrub land," sometimes known also as " light " or " small " " bush land," has recently come into prominence as a possible rival of the Bahama Eed Loam in the production of pineapples. This type occurs as lowlands but little above high water level. The areas are closely associated with the brackish swamps. They are sufficiently elevated to avoid swampy conditions, and yet low enough so that good moisture conditions always prevail. In fact, the soil never becomes dry in the bottom of the pockets. The areas, occurring as they do in the low-lying positions, were probably at one time swampy. The weathering of the rock has occurred by the process of solution alone, and owing to the large amount of soluble matter, but little residual soil has been formed, although the areas are level or nearly so, and there has been but little opportunity for loss by washing. The result of this weathering has been a complete honeycombing or pocketing of the rock sur- face. These holes or pockets vary in diameter from only a few inches to two feet or more, and in depth from a few inches to 18 or 20 inches. It is in these pockets that the soil has been formed. This consists, in the bottom of tlie pockets, of a yellow or light brown clayey or putty-like material, spoken of as marl, which is two or three inches or even more in depth. Under this rests a very loose, soft, black, loamy material, mostly decayed vegetable matter, six inches or more in depth. This surface material burns off, unless great care be taken in clearing the land. Since the marl at the bottom of the pockets is always moist, it may be due to that condition that pineapples succeed so well. The idea current is that the marl itself is practically a fertilizer, and the main source of food for the plants, but the productiveness of this soil is probably due to both the 168 SOILS AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS chemical and physical characteristics of the material and its moisture-holding capacity. Chemically, the marl was found to contain relatively high amounts of potash and lime. Both of these plant-food constituents are important factors in the production of pineapples. It is not known how this land will endure continuous cropping, as it has not been under cultivation long enough to determine this question, but at present it is in considerable demand for the cultivation of this fruit, and ranks as high as the other pineapple lands. Large quantities of fertilizers are used on this soil, as on the Bahama Eed Loam. Its extent, as determined by the survey, is not very great. The largest areas were found in Eleuthera, in the vicinity of Eock Sound, where it is used entirely for the production of pineapples. Other areas were found on Cat and New Providence Islands. More of this soil occurs around swamps, in strips too narrow to be shown on a map of the scale used. The coppice on this soil is similar to that on the Bahama Black Loam, but does not grow to the height attained on the latter. The mechanical analyses of two typical samples of this soil are given in the subjoined table: MECHANICAL ANALYSES OF BAHAMA MARL. o »0 T-< »o S o o o" S an No. Locality. Description. OS a o '3 1-1 S t as H c So ■a . ©is d a S .So Is SB 2, . o P. Ct. p. ct. S h > CC o p. ct. P. ct. P. ct. p. ct. p. ct. p. ct. 9401 Keel Bay, Eleuthera. Yellow clayey marl to 12 inches. 15.80 2.34 3.86 2.70 8.66 6.36 19.44 56.18 9413 Nassau. New Providence. Yellow clayey marl to 12 inches. 15,78 6.10 15.26 9.02 15.04 6.84 20.98 26.72 The chemical analysis of a typical sample of the Bahama marl is as follows : PRINCIPAL FOOD CONSTITUENTS IN BAHAMA MARL. By acid digestion (HCl sp. gr. 1.115). Constituents. Per cent. Phosphoric acid fPoOr.) 010 Lime ( CaO ) 2.250 Potash (KoO) 581 Nitrogen ( N ) .015 These figures indicate a rather low reserve of phosphoric acid and nitro- gen, but a large amount of potash. OEOORAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE o m CQ ca CQ THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 1()9 PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS IN WATER-SOLUBLE SALTS FROM BAHAMA MARL.* (1 part soil to 5 parts water.) O a 3 E ai Location. Crop conditions, etc. Parts per million of air-dried soil. S 3 a .2* CS O So ■S.O ooCU Si 3 Is i £■» 3 9401 9413 Red Bay, Eleu- thera. Nassau, New- Providence. Yellow, clayey marl, 0-12 in. from pocket. Lowland. In pineapples. Fertilizer and cave earth applied. Yellow, clayey marl from bottom of pocket. Newly cleared and in pineapples. Fertilized. 244.0 51.4 115.0 72.8 13.6 26.3 20.8 12.1 510.1 119.6 64.0 33.7 * Analyses made on air-dry samples. These figures show large amoimts of soluble phosphates, although the amount of phosphoric acid in this type, as shown by the acid digestion above given, is small. Both the samples here described were heavily fertilized, and show such large amounts of water-soluble mineral constituents as would probably prove detrimental to plant growth if augmented much further. Here again it would probably prove economical to reduce the fertilizer applica- tions and introduce a crop rotation if suitable crops could be obtained for this purpose. Brackish Swamp. The brackish swamps, or, as they are called, " salina," occupy a consid- erable proportion of the area of all the islands. Some occur along the coast, with only a bar of coral sand between them and the sea, while there are also numerous inland swamps bordering on the lakes and ponds. Those along the coast are covered at high tide with sea water. Those inland are more or less brackish, depending upon whether there is subterranean connection with tlie sea. Some of the inland swamps become quite fresh during the rainy season. The use of the latter for rice culture is being considered, but the practicability of this crop has not been demonstrated. !N'ear Bluff Settlement on Eleuthera is a large swamp covering perhaps 500 or 600 acres which probably could be turned into productive rice fields. It is nearly free from mangrove or anything that would hinder cultivation. The water is only slightly brackish even in the dryest weather. Enough rice could probably be grown on this one area to supply all the inhabitants of the Bahamas. Some rice is reported to 170 SOILS AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS have been grown, and to have done well. But the soil as shown by analysis has generally a salt content too high for snecessful rice cultivation, unless fresh water could be applied in quantities. These swamps have but little agricultural value. They are covered with swamp vegetation, mangrove thickets, buttonwood, scrub palmetto, swamp grasses and other water-loving plants. The soil consists of yellow clayey marl, filling more or less the numerous pockets in the weathered surface of the underlying rock. Mixed with the marl is a large percentage of small rock fragments and small shells. A me- chanical analysis of a sample of this type follows : MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF BRACKISH SWAMP OR SALINA. ■o o a a O o o „a ^3 •♦J 03 -a ^ 10 d fa d o No. Locality. Description. S u <:\ s 10 ay ®10 10 o . oo a O o So So s > da if a ojO 6 P. ct. P.ct. p.ct. p.ct. p.ct. p.ct. p.ct. P.ct. 9414 Nassau. New Providence. Yellowish clayey-marl to 8 inches. 10.33 6.64 10.62 4.70 11.88 10.84 34.48 20.74 The chemical analysis of a sample of swamp marl taken near Nassau gave the following results: PRINCIPAL PLANT FOOD CONSTITUENTS IN SWAMP MARL. By acid digestion (HCl sp. gr. 1.115). Constituents. Per cent. Phosphoric acid (P2O5) .036 Lime (CaO) 43.630 Potash (KoO) 262 Nitrogen (N) .025 The figures show that this material is mainly calcium carbonate. The other important plant-food constituents are present in but very moderate amounts, and the view that has found some credence that this material would prove a valuable fertilizer is shown to lack justification. The amounts of water-soluble constituents in this type were so large that gravimetric de- terminations of them have been made, with the following results : THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 171 GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS OF WATER-SOLUBLE SALTS IN BRACKISH SWAMP OR SALINA. Constituents. Per cent. Calcium sulphate (CaS04) .15 Magnesium sulphate (MgS04) .07 Magnesium chloride (MgCb) .15 Potassium chloride (KCl) .19 Sodium bicarbonate (NallCOs) .49 Sodium chloride (NaCl) 39 Total per cent of soluble salts 1.44 The total amount of salts is seen to be so large that the cultivation of any ordinary crop on this type would be impracticable. There is sufficient sodium chloride present to prevent the growth of all ordinary vegetation. Bahama White Marl. The Bahama White Marl did not occur on any of the islands mapped, but was seen in a reconnoissance of Andros, of which it covers the western half. It is reported also to be present upon a number of the islands, and to occupy large areas. It is low-lying and swampy, and is often covered partially or wholly by salt or brackish waters, and the only vegetation is that which is more or less resistant to salt in the soil. The lower lying portions are covered with a sparse growth of mangrove, while the higher portions, where there is some drainage, support a few scrubby pines and palmettos, with a few other bushes and sedges. The formation is a white coral material or coral ooze, so finely com- minuted that it is almost an impalpable powder, and is very much like chalk. Upon drying, this material contracts into blocks. The material has a depth of from 1 to 3 feet, and is underlain by the same material solidified. At present it has no agricultural value whatever, and is in fact noted for its unproductiveness. The analysis of a typical sample of the marl gave the following results : CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OP BAFIAMA WHITE MARL. By acid digestion (HCl sp. gr. 1.115). Constituent. Per cent. Potash (KoO) 0.306 Soda (NasO) 2.12 Lime (CaO) 47.50 Magnesia (MgO) 2.85 Iron and Alumnia (Fe & Al) trace. Nitrogen (N) 0.054 Phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5) 0.123 Sulphur trioxide (SO3) 0.37 Chlorine (CI) 2.97 Silica (SiOo) 3.22 Carbon dioxide (CO2) 40.48 99.993 , Oxygen equivalent of CI .67 99.323 172 SOILS AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS OF WATER- SOLUBLK SALTS IN BAHAMA WHITE MAUL. Constituent. Per cent. Calcium sulphate (CaSO^) 0.29 Magnesium sulphate (MgSOi) .24 Magnesium chloride (MgClj) .63 Potassium chloride (KCl) .23 Sodium chloride (NaCl) 3.94 Sodium bicarbonate ( NaHCOa) .07 Sodium carbonate (NaoCO.-..) .01 Per cent soluble salts 5.41 By the above analysis we iind that the marl contains over -i per cent of chlorides, which amount would preclude most plant growths. It had been suggested that this marl would be of value for making soil on the higher lands, where soil is deficient. The practicability of this is not known, and could only be determined by an actual trial. The salts would probably leach out after a few rains. Large quantities of this marl can be easily obtained. Because of its solubility and action with reagents, the mechanical analj-sis of this ty})e could not be made. METHODS OF CULTIVATING AND CROPPING. The primitive methods of cultivation in vogue are tlie result of circum- stances. The stony character of all soils, with the exception of one type (Coral Sand), is such that improved agricultural implements can not be used. The plow, the harrow and other implements of that class, which are used in the agri- culture of most countries, are never seen here. Even a hand hoe is of no use on much of the land, for an implement is required that can reach down into the pockets in the rocks. For this purpose the machete or large knife docs fairly well. The same practices are employed by the planter of to-day as wei-e utilized by his ancestors. In fact, there has been little improvement in the culti- vation of any of the crops, witli the possible exception of pineapples. That the methods could be improved in many Avays there can be no doubt. 'J'liere being no large forest trees, the land is easily cleared. The brush is chopped down with a machete, the coarser wood removed, and the remainder burned on the ground. When burning, great care must be taken, for if the soil ho dry, and the fire gets too hot, much of the organic matter is burned away, and irrepar- able injury is done. A large amount of land on all the islands has been injured by careless burning. A wet period is usiuilly selected in which to do the burning, and even then care must be exercised. If the burning has been well done, the field is ready for any crop which it is desired to plant. The amount of land cleared is small, for as a rule two or three acres is OEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORI THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 173 all that one man can care for. His work is not clone in an extensive way, for has object is to grow only enough provisions for his own family. But in these small clearings he grows a little of everything that the soils and climate produce. No systematic arrangement of planting is followed, each product being planted in the spots considered best suited to it. Thus, in the same clearing may be found cocoanut, orange, lime, sapodilla, alligator pear, bread- fruit and other trees, with possibly sugar cane, yams, sweet cassava, onions, tomatoes and other vegetables. This manner of planting applies particularly to the small tracts of the natives, which may be regarded more as gardens than as fields. Such crops as pineapples and sisal are grown in larger fields, de- voted to a single crop. No crop rotation is followed, but in the growing of " provisions " some change in the crop may take place over the field upon replanting. With this system there is no way to estimate yields, and all that can be said is that the people try to grow enough produce to supply their needs. Cultivation is done entirely by hand. The machete is used to dig up the soil for planting, and the after cultivation consists of scratching about the plants with the same implement. Fertilizers or manures", as a rule, are not used on provision crops. The production of oranges and other fruits is carried on in a haphazard way, no particular care being given either to cultivation or the improvement of the stock. Budding and grafting are practiced, but old methods are em- ployed. So far it has been impossible to introduce the modern methods of budding and grafting. More care is used in the cultivation of pineapples. After the land has been cleared fertilizer is put into the holes, and a sucker, or, if suckers can- not be had, the top of a pineapple, is planted. The former does much better. Each hole or pocket in the rock usually contains only one plant, so that the number of plants to an acre is dependent upon the number of pockets. The usual number ranges from 2000 to 4000 dozens. There can be no arrangement in rows, and the fields apjjear very irregular. (Plate XXV, Fig. 2.) Twice a year, usually in April and August, more fertilizer is added, and at the same time the soil is loosened around the plants. In 18 months from planting — the plant- ing being done in August — the first crop of pineapples can be gathered. Crops are gathered for two succeeding years, after which they decline. The picking season extends over four months. Generally three crops are all that can be taken from the original plants. New plants are then set out, and the cro]3ping 174 SOILS AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS continues until the soil becomes unproductive. It is then thrown out of cultiva- tion and allowed to grow up in bush, and after an interval of from 15 to 20 years, as has already been pointed out, it may be cleared again, having in the meantime regained much of its former productiveness. The pineapples, M'hen gathered, are carried in baskets on the heads of laborers to the beach, and then by small boats to the schooner which is to carry the product either to Nassau or to a foreign port. The sisal plantations are the most extensive on the Islands. Where sisal is grown it occupies the entire field. The method of cultivation is to plant the young suckers in rows 5 feet apart each way. But even greater distances are to be preferred, both because they allow more space for the plants to de- velop, and also because if it be necessary to reset the field young plants can be started between the old ones, and by the time the latter are ready to be removed the younger ones have leaves large enough to cut. In this way no time is lost and the profits are increased. (Plate LXXXVI, Fig. 8.) The time required from planting to the first cutting is 4 years, and then 20 to 25 leaves can be cut from each plant. Thereafter from 8 to 10 leaves can be removed every 6 months, the plants lasting from 8 to 10 years. It takes about 100 pounds of the green leaves to make 5 pounds of fiber. The yield varies somewhat, but probably averages about one ton per acre for first year of harvesting and one-half ton a year afterward. On the large plantations the fiber is cleaned by machinery by passing the leaves through cleaners where the pulp is extracted and the fiber left behind. This is then placed on frames in the sun and when thoroughly dry, packed in huge bales for shipment. (Plate LXXXVII.) Some fiber is produced by hand labor on Cat and some of the other islands. The native method is to tie the leaves in bundles and to macerate them in the brackish water of the ponds, and then, when in proper condition, to beat the leaves upon the coral rocks and to wash them clean in the sea. Afterwards the fiber is hung up to dry and bleach in the sun, and is then put up in small bales for marketing. The cultivation of sisal requires no particular skill. All that is neces- sary is to keep down the weeds and other growths, and stir the soil occasion- ally. Xo fertilizers are used in the cultivation of this crop. IMPORTANT CROP AND SOIL PROBLEMS. The leading industries of the Bahama Islands are the fisheries and agri- culture. Those who are interested in the latter are either engaged in grow- THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 1T5 ing pineapples; in raising citrus fruits; or in the production of sisal. Of these three industries the first outranks the other two in importance. Some of the problems affecting these crops will now be discussed. Pineapples. The production of pineapples, because of its profitableness, has developed at the expense of the citrus fruit interests. Pineapples and the citrus fruits are grown on distinct soil types, but the former are a much more certain crop, being less subject to disease and the attacks of insect pests. Their cultiva- tion has also come to be better understood. Until recently, as already stated, the Bahamas had no competitors in the pineapple trade, but since the advent in the market of Jamaica, Cuban and Florida pineapples, the Bahama fruit has lost its prestige, the prices have fallen, and with the duty of $7 per thousand imposed by the United States, the industry is not so profitable as formerly, and the growers have become discouraged generally. There is a large area of soil adapted to the growing of pineapples, and these lands are given up entirely to their production. The practice is to continue the growing of pineapples as long as the land remains productive. Although there are pineapple soils on all the islands, and particularly the larger ones, yet the industry is centered on Eleuthera and Cat Island. On these the value of the lands has increased greatly, and they have now come into the possession of a comparatively few wealthy men. The fields are owned either individually or in partnership. Outside of these two islands the pineapple fields are small and scattering, and of little consequence. The pineapples are grown either under the direct supervision of the owner or a foreman, hiring the labor necessary to work the crop. The share system is also practiced. Only three varieties of pineapples are grown. These are the Sugar Loaf, English, and Scarlet. The first two are very delicious fruits, but not adapted for shipping in the export trade. Only small quantities are grown, and these are used entirely for home consumption. The Scarlet pine is the one grown for the export trade. It is a good shipper, but rather small. The production varies from year to year, depending upon the season. If the winter, which is the dry season, is not too dry, so that the pineapples do not sufi^er for moisture, fair crops are obtained, but in late years droughts have been quite common, reducing the yields of this crop, as well as of others. The pineapple lands have decreased in productiveness. Formerly, on 176 SOILS AXD AGRICULTURAL CONDITIO^^S newly-cleared land, three-fourths of the plants usually l)ore fruit, while now, in average seasons, only about 40 per cent of the plants are fruitful. That is, where the yield, until only a few years ago, was about 3000 dozens per acre, it is now from 1000 to 2000 dozens. In order to increase the production the planters have resorted to the use of larger amounts of fertilizers. The in- crease in exports in recent years has been due not alone to this fact, but to a greatly increased acreage. The known pineapple lands have now all been more or less under cultivation, and good land is rapidly becoming scarce. The problem now confronting the planter is to find some means of restoring and maintaining the productiveness of the " worn-out "' fields, without the necessity . of throwing them out of cultivation for a long period of time, as is the present custom. The Bahama Marl, or " scrub land," which has just come into prominence, has done much to keep up the production to this time. The markets of tlie United States are depended upon entirely to take the Bahama pineapples, and until the last few years the fruit was in good demand and the i^rices were fair. In late years, however, the prices have fallen greatly. Official reports of the Islands show that tlie exports of 1900. which were over 7,000,000 dozens, brought but little more than the crop of 1892, which was not quite one-tenth as large. The low prices are not due entirely to the competition of other pineapple-producing countries, but in some measure to the poor condition in which the fruit reaches the market. The fruit as grown is of fairly good quality, but in a desire to put it on the market at the earliest possible time, in order to secure high prices, it is gath- ered too long before maturity. Then, too, the fruit is roughly handled in transporting it from the fields to the boats, and finally it is packed in bulk in the hold of the vessel, without any assortment whatever as to size or con- dition. The fruit is more or less bruised, and soon detei'iorates. Sailing vessels are depended upon to carry the product. If the weather be favorable and the vessel arrives within a reasonal^le time, the cargo will sell at fair prices, but if, as often happens, the voyage be prolonged by calms or adverse winds, the fruit arrives overripe and in a more or less unmarketable condition. It is then neces.sary to dispose of the cargo at once for what it will bring. Under such conditions only the lowest prices can be expected, and occasionally a cargo will not sell for enough to pay the duty. It is the poor cargoes that bring down the total receipts, so that the final outcome is that the grower has received but little, if anything at all. for his crop. The GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XXXI RECONNAISSANCE MAP SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF SOILS —ON— CAT ISLAND LEGEND Coral Sand i | Bahama Black Loam Bahama Bed Loam Bahama Marl Brackish Swamp SCALE STATUTE MILES GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 1905 SStaUov-- sani3 spvt^'''" BaifJcs ]Vcst 75°3 0' THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 177 small returns, coupled with the increasing cost of production, because of de- creasing productivity of the soils and the greater use of fertilizers, have made pineapple growing less profitable. The outlook is decidedly discouraging to the growers, but the conditions, as said before, are largely the result of their own making. The Bahama growers, knowing the conditions, still do not attempt to improve them. It is evident to them that shipping in bulk is not a satisfactory way to put fruit on the market. The market demands that a product be put up in an attractive manner, and this can be done only by using suitable packages. Crates can be obtained at a small cost, and if the fruit were carefully packed it would arrive in good condition, better prices would be assured, and the losses would be reduced to a minimum. But the growers, as a whole, deem it too much trouble to use more than the ordinary or customary means of packing and shipping. That such improvement would increase their profits there is not the slightest doubt. A few growers whose shipments are small, have tried the plan and received increased re- turns, more than enough to justify the additional labor and cost. The better shipping facilities possessed by Cuba and Jamaica enable them to compete successfully with the Bahamas. Ocean steamers ply regu- larly and often between their ports and ports of the United States, while the steamers from the Bahamas are irregular. The use of large vessels in the fruit trade is also hampered by the lack of harbor accommodations for vessels of over 10 feet draught. Therefore the Bahamas must rely entirely upon sailing vessels. There is one objection, however, to shipping pineapples by steamer. The holds of such vessels are hot, and fruit does not keep well, and where it is packed properly in crates, or even in barrels, it should arrive in better condition by sailing boats. Shipment in this way also has the ad- tage of being much cheaper. Florida promises to become the strongest competitor in the production of pineapples. The industry is being developed there rapidly, and because railroad facilities can outstrip all competing countries, especially with a heavy duty imposed upon the foreign products. Cuba, Jamaica and Florida all produce larger, improved varieties, which are more in demand, particularly in the fancy trade. The Bahama Scarlet pineapple, although smaller, is sweeter and less fibrous, and if put on the market properly should hold its own against these larger and more showy varieties. The American duty does not discriminate in the matter of quality, and it behooves the Bahama grower to put only the best of fruit upon the market, and by calling attention to its better quality, to create a demand which no competition can injure. 12 178 SOILS AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS Besides the improvement in tlie manner of shipping and grading the fruit, there is another important question to be considered, and that is the matter of keeping in closer touch with the markets and endeavoring to put the fruit on the proper market at the proper time. In order to do this an agent should be employed to look after the cargoes as they arrive, and to dispose of them to the best advantage. To this end the growers should form an association, as they have in many sections of the United States. The output of the Islands would warrant such a combination, and the industry being in the hands of a comparatively few growers, it should not be a difficult matter for them to organize. Some loss has been obviated by the establishment of canning factories to preserve the poorer and overripe fruit. The canned fruit is exported, and is gaining in favor. It was first exported in 1876, and the output of the factories has since greatly increased. In 1900, when such a large crop was produced, over 37,000 cases, valued at about £7000, were exported. At pres- ent there are three factories in operation. One is at Nassau and the others are at Governors Harbor and Eock Sound on Eleuthera. Citrus Fruits. As stated before, the citrus fruit interests have been neglected, and the production has decreased until it is now small indeed to what it was formerly. Oranges were the first fruit of importance in the export trade. The produc- tion has varied greatly. At times it has been practically nothing. For the 30 years preceding 1900 on the average nearly 3,000,000 oranges were exported annually. After the freeze in Florida in 1894-95> when the orange trees were so badly injured, the interest in orange growing revived, and the production was increased to its highest point. But the interest soon waned. The Amer- ican duty of 1 cent a pound was imposed, and this being too high for the Bahama growers vmder the conditions existing, they could not compete with profit. It is thus only at times of failure or partial failure in Florida and California, when prices are higher, that the Bahama product will bring enough to justify exporting. In consequence, the orange orchards are neg- lected. As pointed out before, the production of oranges has always been more or less seriously affected by the scale insects and diseases. With the introduction of improved varieties and proper care of the orchards, large crops could be obtained. At present no good orchards are to be found. The orchards as they existed were small and scattering, and when shipments were sent they were made up of fruit collected from several settlements. THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 1T9 The orchards have never received the care they should, even when the industry was in a flourishing condition. This is due to the lack of knowledge on the part of the growers. The Bahama Black Loam, which is suited to the production of the citrus fruits, occurs in large areas. Because of the stony character of this type it is better adapted to the production of tree fruits than to the smaller cultivated crops. As with pineapples, oranges and grape fruit are shipped in bulk in sail- ing vessels. There is no grading into sizes or as to the condition of the fruit. The consequence is that low prices are received, and with the present import duty levied by the United States, profits are still less than in tlie case of pine- apples. As stated elsewhere, the production of grape fruit has become more im- portant in the last few years. It promises to become more profitable than any of the other citrus fruits, or even any of the other export products. There is an increasing demand for it in the United States and the supply is not equal to the demand. At present California and Florida are the only com- petitors. The Florida crop cannot be depended on because of the liability to injury by frosts and freezing, and the California product is of poor quality, and alone cannot supply the trade. In years wlien the Florida crop fails, the Bahama grape fruit supplies the deficiency, and liigh prices are received. But even without this factor the production of this fruit proves very profit- able. It succeeds well on the Islands, and is of superior quality. The trees are not so subject to disease as the orange. The fruit is most successfully ^rown by grafting the improved varieties on the native sour orange stock. The trees bear well. Two crops can be picked in a season. The December picking, coming into the market during the holidays, is more in demand and brings higher prices. The exports are increasing slowly, but there is a likelihood of more rapid increase if the present high prices continue. But the same haphazard meth- ods of growing are employed as with the orange, the fruit is shipped in the same manner, and as long as this continues the outlook is not without some uncertainty, especiallv if Florida competition should become stronger and the American duty should be increased. The fruit meets with a ready sale in the large American cities. It satis- fies the demand for a first-class fruit, and with the high prices received the duty can be paid and still leave a fair profitto the grower. There is one grower 180 SOILS AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS on the Islands who has anticipated the demand for a fancy fruit. He has employed the hest methods of cultivation from the beginning. Holes were blasted out of the rock in which to set the trees, and these were filled with soil. The trees then received close attention, were carefully cultivated, appli- cations of fertilizer were made, the trees kept pruned, and, by spraying, freed from fungus diseases and insect pests. As a result, large crops of fine fruit are obtained. The fruit is gathered carefully and assorted to certain standard sizes, wrapped in tissue paper, and packed in crates. It is shipped by steamer to ]S[ew York. An agent is there to receive the shipment, and with instruc- tions to either sell or hold in storage, depending on the state of the market. Unlike the pineapple growers, this grower has found a particular market for his product, and is receiving fancy prices by filling the demand for a fruit having certain characteristics as to quality, color, size and shape. A fruit of medium size, slightly flatteued, of pale yellow color and thin, polished rind, was found to be preferred. Thus tliis grower is receiving good returns for his efforts, and has shown the practicability and profitableness of growing only the best grade of fruit for export, and of marketing his fruit in an enter- prising manner. If such methods were generally ])racticed, the condition of the fruit industry would be greatly improved. Bahama Hemp or Sisal. The fiber industry of the Bahama Islands promises to become of great importance. If the industry suft'ered during its early days through lack of knowledge and experience on the part of those who attempted to cultivate sisal without a proper knowledge of the conditions existing in the Islands, such an undesirable state of atfairs is gradually being overcome by those engaged in the fiber business at the present time. Experience has shown that with proper management and care, sisal cultivation can be carried on at a good profit. At the present time there is a large acreage under sisal cultivation, which is for the most part cleaned l)y machinery, and fourteen mills are at the present time operated for tliis purpose. The market for the Bahama sisal is America, but the obstacles, such as a protective tariff and inadequate ship- ping facilities which are so detrimental to fruit culture, do not exist for the . sisal industry. The fiber does not deteriorate with shipping, is subject to no duty, and is in steady demand with an established reputation for excellence. GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XXXII RECONNAISSANCE MAP SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF SOILS —ON— SAN SALVADOR LEGEND Coral Sand Bahama Black Loam Bahama Red Loam Brackish Swamp J 1 South, M'eat,Pf'\ SCALE STATUTE MILES GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 1905 THE B API AM A ISLANDS 181 CONCLUSION. The majority of the population of the Bahama Islands is composed of negroes, who are not well educated ; but compulsor}^ education laws are now in force, and it is hoped much good will result. If the educational system could include instruction in practical agriculture and horticulture, this would he a great step toward improving the condition of the people dependent upon the soil for their livelihood. "\^^iile at present, agriculture is passing through a period of depression, there seems to be no good reason why, with the selection of special crops, more intelligent methods of cultivation, and better business methods, certain lines of agriculture should not succeed well on the Islands. The finan- cial success of a number of men, who employ modern methods of cultivating and marketing their fruit, is a sufficient demonstration of the possibilities of agriculture in the Bahama Islands. VEGETATION OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS VEGETATION OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS BY WILLIAM C. COKER, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Botany in the University of North Carolina. INTRODUCTION. With the exception of New Providence, the numerous islands of the Ba- hama group lie outside the usual routes of tropical travel, and access to them can be had ordinarily only through the use of small schooners. The compara- tive insignificance of the Bahamas in their trade relations has intensified this isolation and resulted in their remaining in large measure, as terra incognita to the rest of the world. It is a strange commentary on the mutations of time, that on that very island where Columbus first set foot and praised his God for so fair a landing, there has been placed a lighthouse with but the single purpose of warning the mariner from its lonely shores. In the hope of adding somewhat to our rather meager knowledge of these Islands, and of bringing into more accessible form the scattered observations of others, the Geographical Society of Baltimore, in the summer of 1903, organized an Expedition for the purpose of their exploration. I, with my two assistants, Mr. C. A. Shore and Mr. F. M. Hanes, was given charge of the botanical side, and this report is the result of observations and collections made during the voyage. As an apology for many deficiencies, I would call atten- tion to the limited time at our disposal, and to the extreme difficulty of drying and preserving plants on the decks of a schooner generally exposed to a stiff breeze. Except in the town of Nassau, where we secured a working room for several days, the plants had to be brought to the boat and there pressed, labelled, and stowed away. On account of the salt air and frequent rains constant attention was necessary to prevent the decay of our specimens. Wherever possible notes were made on the spot, and it is from these that most of my descriptions are taken. A large part of our time was consumed in sailing from port to port, or rather from point to point, as there are few protected harbors in the Islands; 186 VEGETATION and at a number of landings we had time for but a few hours on shore and had to avail ourselves of every moment. On our return, the collections were distributed among a number of special- ists, who kindly undertook their determination and who are responsible for the nomenclature. All of the ferns and flowering plants, with the exception of the grasses, sedges and palms, were determined by Dr. X. L. Britton; the grasses, by Dr. H. F. Hitchcock; the palms, by Dr. 0. F. Cook; the myxomy- cetes by Dr. W. G. Farlow; the algae, by Dr. M. A. Howe; the fungi, by Dr. Geo. F. Atkinson; the licliens, by Mr. W. W. Calkins; the liverworts, by Dr. A. W. Evans ; and the mosses, by Mrs. N. L. Britton. To each of these I am under many obligations not only for undertaking the work, but for the kind- ness that they have in every case shown in furnishing information and in answering my incpiiries. To Dr. X. L. Britton, Director of the Xew York Botanical Garden, my thanks are particularly due for the assistance he so generously offered during my stay of six weeks in the Bronx Park Museum. To Mr. C. A. Shore, who aided me in collecting, and to Mr. F. M. Hanes, who took the photographs, I wish to express my gratitude for faithful assistance under all circumstances. SKETCH OF BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN BAHAMAS. Since Mark Catesby's visit in 1725, these Islands have been frequently explored by botanists; unfortunately, however, without system. Most of their scientific exploration has yielded little fruit, as there are but a few publications of any extent on a flora that is both abundant and attractive. Most collectors have been satisfied with making herbaria without troubling themselves with written observations. Some few have merely identified without collecting. The Bahama plants that have been preserved are now, however, quite numerous, and when thoroughly worked up, they will no doubt be found to include the major part of the flora of the Islands. The earliest collector of whom we have any information was Mark Catesby. After visiting Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia and Florida, he went to Xew Providence in 1735. From there he made visits to Eleuthera, Andros, Abaco and other islands. He remained in the Bahamas until 1726 and collected plants from all the points he visited. His collections are now at Oxford and in the British Museum. On his return to England, Catesby published two large volumes of explorations which contained many illustrations.^ The first ^ The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and The Bahama Islands, etc. London, 1731-43. GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XXXIII THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 1S7 volume appeared in 1731, the second in 1743. Linnseus based some of his species on Catesby's drawings. No more botanical work seems to have been attempted in the Bahamas until Emperor Joseph II of Austria sent Franz Joseph Maerter, who was Professor of Natural History in Vienna, with several assistants in 1783 to collect plants and animals in America. Landing- in Philadelphia, the party travelled through the eastern United States to Florida. From there Maerter, with two companions. Boos and Schopf, went to New Providence in jVEarch, 1784. Maerter remained but two weeks, but Schopf collected there for three months and Boos until September 9 of the same year. From New Providence these two men made excursions to several of the Out-islands. Of the collec- tions made by this party, some specimens are in the K. K. Hofmuseum in Vienna and some in Brussels. A few years later Andre Michaux, the well- known French explorer and naturalist, went from the southern United States to the Bahama Islands in 1789. There he collected about 863 trees and shrubs and a number of seeds, most of which were carried alive to France and there planted. A long period of over forty years now elapsed before another botanist explored the Islands. In 1830 a man named Swainson visited the Bahamas and remained there until 1842. Little is known regarding Swainson, not even his first name. FIc did some collecting on New Providence, but most of his plants are labeled from the Out-islands. His herbarium was taken to Kew, where it was worked over by Grisebach, wlio incorporated a large number of the species in his '' Flora of the British West Indies." ' Sixteen years later Justus Adalrik Hjalmarson, who had been living for a number of years in St. Thomas and Porto Eico, visited Grand Turk Island in May, 1858, where he collected for fourteen days. His plants were included in (rrisebach's flora. ^ They are now divided between the Kew herbarium, Grisebach's herbarium in Gottingen, and Krug and Urban's herbarium in Berlin. The following year William Cooper, an American, collected in New Providence. His plants (about 150 sheets) are now in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden. At about this time Henrik Johannes Krebs, who had also spent most of his life on St. Thomas, paid a short visit to New Providence and collected a few plants which are now in the Botanical Museum in Copenhagen. - Flora of the British West Indian Islands. London, 1861. 188 VEGETATION No more botanical research was attempted in the Islands until Dr. Anna H. Searing, of Eoehester, New York, collected in the Bahamas in 1885. Her plants are included in the list of Gardner, Brace and Dolley.' In June of the next year, Dr. F. H. Herrick visited Abaco with a party from the Johns Hopkins University, where he made collections of plants that are now divided between Yale University and Adelbert College, Ohio/ During this same year (1886) John Gardner, an Englishman, who was occupying the position of scientific adviser to the Board of Agriculture of the Bahamas, identified a number of Bahama plants and added to Brace's list.^ He did not, however, make a collection. For the next two years Baron von H. F. A. Eggers,' was busy collecting plants in the Bahamas. He first visited America as an officer in the Danish army. Later he became interested in natural history, and after retiring from the army in 1885, he remained for a number of years in the West Indies, where he made explorations and collected a large number of plants. In Jul}', 1887, he visited Grand Turk and collected some interesting plants. Later lie was sent by the British Association to investigate the Bahama flora. Accord- ingly, in February and March, 1888, he visited New Providence, Acklin, For- tune and Long Islands, where he collected and made notes on the general vegetation. His collections from the Bahamas include about 314 species (in addition to 15 numbers from Grand Turk). They have now been widely scattered, some being at Kew and most of the others with Krug and Urban in Berlin. A number of Eggers's plants have recently been worked up by Urban," who found many new species among them. During this same year Dr. Charles Sumner Dolley collected in the Bahama Islands and added to the list of Brace and Gardner."^ His collections are in the herbarium of the University of Pennsylvania. Mr. L. J. Brace, a resident of Nassau, has for years been collecting and preserving Bahama plants. Some time ago he started a list of the flora which was added to and published by Gardner and Dolley.' Brace's numbers are now at Kew. During the next year Dr. J. I. Northrop and his wife, Alice Northrop, visited the Bahamas, ■■' Provisional List of the Plants of the Bahama Islands. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1889, pp. 349-407. ■* Notes on the Flora of Abaco and Adjoining Islands. Johns Hopkins Univ. Cir., Vol. VI, 1886, pp. 46-47; also Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1889, pp. 349-407. ■'Flora of the Bahamas. Nature, 1888, pp. 565-566; also Die Bahama-Inseln. Globus, Braunschweig, Vol. LXII, 1892, pp. 209-214. " Symbolae Antillanae sen Fundamenta Florae Indae Occidentalis. Berlin. THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 189 where they remained for over six months, collecting animals and plants on New Providence and Andros. Dr. Northrop died soon after his return to the United States, but his wife, with the aid of a number of specialists, published a list of the plants which they had collected. This publication is a valuable contribu- tion to our knowledge of the Bahama flora. ^ During the winter of 1890-91, Dr. A. S. Hitchcock, with a party of naturalists, made a tropical tour including the islands of Jamaica, Grand Cayman and the following of the Bahama group : New Providence, Eleuthera, Cat, Watlings, Crooked, Fortune and Inagua Islands. The plants that he collected on this expedition were published in the IV and IX Annual Reports of the Missouri Botanical Garden. This report includes 380 plants from the Bahama Islands, among which were several new species.* In 1895, Mrs. G. A. Hall, at present a resident of St. Augustine, Florida, visited New Providence and Green Turtle Cay, collecting algge. She sent a number of species to Agardb, who reported on them in several of his papers. The activity in botanical exploration in the Bahamas which marked the closing years of tlie last century has continued over into this. Dr. John W. Harshberger, at present instructor of botany in the University of Pennsyl- vania, while traveling in the West Indies, stopped for a few hours during July, 1901, at Matthewtown, Great Inagua, and collected some plants.' During the winter of the next year, Mrs. Amelia C. Anthony spent some time on New Providence and collected a number of ferns, a list of which she published later.'" A. H. Curtiss, a resident of Florida, visited the island of New Providence in 1903 and made a collection of plants which are now in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden. During June and July of this same year, the Bahama Expedition of the Geographical Society of Baltimore was making its cruise of the Bahamas and collected material for this present volume. Since the return of the Bahama Expedition, Drs. N. L. Britton, C. F. Millspaugh and M. A. Howe have collected extensively in the Bahama Islands. ' Flora of New Providence and Andros, with an Enumeration of the Plants Collected by John I. Northrop and Alice R. Northrop, in 1890. Mem. Tor. Bot. Club, Vol. XII, 1902, pp. 1-98, pis. 1-19. ^ Crytogams Collected in the Bahamas, Jamaica and Grand Cayman. Rept. Bot. Garden, Vol. IX, 1898, pp. 111-20; also Plants of the Bahamas, Jamaica and Grand Cayman. Fourth An. Rept. Bot. Garden, 1893, pp. 47-179. "Notes on the Strand Flora of Great Inagua, Haiti and Jamaica. Torreya, Vol. Ill, 1903, pp. 67-70. "•Fern Hunting in Nassau. Fern Bull., Vol. X, 1902, pp. 6-5-68. 190 VEGETATION Dr. Britton" accompanied by Mrs. Britton visited Xew Providence in April of 190-J-, and again during Angnst and September of the same year. His plants are in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden, of which he is Director. Drs. ^[illspaugh and Howe visited New Providence, Joulters, Gun, North Cat and South Cat Cays, North Bimini and South Bimini. The plants collected by Dr. Millspaugh during this expedition number about 394 sheets and are now divided l^etween the Field Columbian Museum of Chicago and the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden. Dr. Howe devoted his attention to the Algae and Fungi and brought back a large number of these forms, which were also deposited in the New York Botanical Garden.'^ (COMPOSITION AND RELATIONSHIPS OF THE BAHAMA FLORA. The number of native and naturalized flowering plants and ferns so far collected and identified from the Bahama Islands is about nine hundred and fifty. This includes collections made by Dr. Britton and Dr. Millspaugh since the return of the Bahama Expedition and not yet published, together with the collection of Mr. A. H. Curtiss, made in the spring of 1903. Tbi:^ number undoubtedly comprises by far the greater part of the plants of the Islands, but there is yet much work to be done before we can know even approximately the extent and variety of their indigenous flora. The ferns and fern-allies are represented by twenty-five species. Of these, all are ferns except Psilotum nudum (L.) Griseb., which is known only from Andros. Lyco podium, SelagineUa and Equisetum are not found. The maiden-hair fern (Adiantum capiUus-veneris L.) and Asplenium dentatum L. have been found only on New Providence. There are but five native species of Gymnosperms, the Cycads being represented by three Zamias and the Conifers by Pinus haJiainensis Griseb. and Juniperus harhadensis L. All are confined to the northwestern group. Grasses and sedges are represented l)y a large number of species, most of which are widely distributed in other countries. Of these groups only Eragrostis haltamensis Hitch, is endemic. So far as we are able to determine at present, tliere are seven indigenous palms in the Islands. The different species have been so variously named, how- ever, that only by examination and comparison of collections can their identity be definitely settled. Hitchcock and Gardner, Brace and Dolley list Sahal um- " Notes on Bahama Algae. Bull. Tor. Bot. Club, Vol. XXXI. 1904, pp. 93-100; also Collections of Marine Algae from Florida and the Bahamas. Jour. N. Y. Bot. Garden, Vol. V, 1904, pp. 16-166. THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 191 hracuUfera (Jacq.) Mart., from Cat and Fortune Islands respectively, but there is no doubt that this is the same plant as the one we collected from Cat .Island and New Providence, and identified by Dr. Cook in this report as Inodes palmetto (Walt.) Cook. Hitchcock's Thrinax argentea (Jacq.) Lodd., collected on Eleuthera and Cat Islands, is undoubtedly the Coccothrinax jucunda Sarg. given in this report, while his Thrinax parviflora Sw. is prob- ablv our Thrinax hahamensis Cook. The cabbage-palm, given in Gardner, Brace and Dolley as Euterpe oleracea, is probably Cook's Cijdospatlie northropi, collected by Xorthrop and by us. In addition to the four palms listed in this report, Xorthrop collected one other on Andros, a new species named by Cook. Paurotis androsana. and Millspaugh in the spring of this year collected two other species from Xorth Cat Cay and South Bimini, identified as Thrinax floridana Sarg. and Pseudophoenix sargentii Wendl., respectively. It may prove, however, that when comparison is made these two may be found to be identical with others previously collected. Among the other Monocotyledons, the Bromeliacece, Smilacacece, and Or- chidacece'are most abundant. jSTorthrop lists six species of Tillandsia to which we add Tillandsia aloifolia Hook., from Abaco, not before collected in the Bahamas. Tillandsia usneoidcs L., the "gray moss" of our southern States, has been reported only in the list of Gardner, Brace and Dolley. Of Smilax there are three or four species at leac-t. Of these, Smilax heyrichii Kunth of this report has probably been collected by others under a different name. Of the four species of Amaryllidacece, Agava rigida Mill., the great century plant or bamboo, is by far the most conspicuous. It is singular that it has not been reported from Xew Providence. The orchids are represented by about thirty species, l)ut they are much in need of further study, as their names have probably l)een considerably confused by various collectors. Xorthrop's new species. Vanilla articulata, from the Bahamas and Cuba, may be identical with one of the south Florida forms. Of the lily family, but one species is known on the Islands. This is Aletris bracteata Xorthrop, found by Xorthrop on Andros, and endemic there. Of all that great group, the Amentales, comprising tlie oaks, hickorys, chestnuts, alders, hornbeams, etc., that make up so large a part of our conti- nental forests, there is but one species, Myrica cerifera L., to be found in the Bahama Islands, and it may have been introduced from the United States by the agencv of man. It has so far been noticed only on Xew Providence and Andros. There are several indigenous species of figs, all of which are large 192 VEGETATION trees. Three are listed in this report and five others are given by Xorthrop, Hitchcock and Urban. It is very doubtful, however, if there are as many as eight species represented in these collections, and I think it nnlikely that there are more than this nimiber of indigenous figs in all the islands of the group. The Loranthacece are credited with seven or eight species, but here also the nomenclature has probably been confused. This family is not nearly so abimdant in the Bahamas as in some of our other tropical islands, as Jamaica and Cuba. The Polygonaceai, represented in temperate countries only by herbaceous species, comprise a number of Bahama trees of the genus CoccoJohis. Some of them arc among the most common plants of the Islands. No water lilies (Nymphoeaceoe) had been found until we collected CastaUa ampla (DC.) Green, on Cat Island, and it remains the only indigenoiis species of that family so far reported. The great group, Cruciferce, so abundant in the United States, is represented only by the widely distributed littoral plant Cakile cequaUs L' Her., and the introduced weed, Lcpidium vlrginicum L. Of the rose family, Chrysohalamis and Primus are the only Bahama genera. The first is represented by two species, the pink-fruited and black-fruited cocoa plums; the second by but one species, Prunns sphwrocarpa Sw., known only from iS^ew Providence. The Mimosacece, rarely found in the United States, furnished some of the largest and most useful trees of the Islands, such as the horseflesh and will tamarind. The Cassiacece and PapilionacecB are also well represented. The proportion of woody species to herbaceous ones is greater in these families than it is in the United States. Of the Zygophyllacece, Guaiacum (Lignum vitse) and two species of Trihulus are all that have been collected. Trihuhis cistoides L. is reported only by Hitchcock. We did not see it at any point and its evident rarity is remarkable when we consider its wide distribu- tion and abundance on other tropical shores. The Linacece comprise several species of Erytliroxylon and two species of Linuin. Of the latter Linum cur- tissii Small is a new species found by Dr. Britton on Xew Providence and soon to be published. The Euphorbiacece is one of the most extensive families of the Islands. Most of its representatives are woody species and many of them are trees. The peculiar shrub, Bonaniia cuhana A. Eich., of our collection, had not before been found out of Cuba, and the large tree, Pera humelicef olia Griseb., also collected by us, has not heretofore been published from the Ba- hamas. Securinego acidothamnus (Griseb.) Muell. Arg., collected by us on Andros, had not previously been found north of St. Thomas. The Celastracece, GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XXXIV Fig. 1. — "almond" tree (termixalia catappa), Nassau •yr-r-r. — ■K ■J ^ /m Fig. 2. — fig tree (ficus sapotifolia), nassau VIEWS ILLUSTRATING VEGETATION THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 193 Rhamnacece and Sapindacece are fairly well represented. In the vine family (Vitacece), there are a good many species of Cissus, but of the true grapes there is only Vitis rotundifolia Michx. of the southern United States. It seems to occur only on New Providence. The Virginia creeper, one of our common plants, has been found on N"ew Providence, Andros and Eleuthera. Of the mallows, a new species of Malvaviscus from Watlings Island is given in this report. Of the Cactacece, about six species have so far been reported, but it is probable that a more thorough exploration of the southern islands will add several to this list. It is remarkable that so far no cactus has been found on the island of New Providence. The Myrtacece are chiefly represented by the genus Eugenia. The guava {Psidium guava Kadd.), although abundantly planted, is scarcely, if at all, naturalized in the Bahamas. This is rather peculiar, as it has made itself quite at home in a number of the West Indies, where, as in Jamaica, it forms extensive thickets. The cultivated Pimenta vulgaris W. A., indigenous to Jamaica, seems also not to have established itself. The failure of these two plants to gain a footing without cultivation emphasizes the restricted condi- tions of soil and climate furnished by the islands of the group. The Urnhel- liferce, so abundant in temperate regions, can boast but two indigenous species here. In addition to these, one or two weeds have been introduced from other countries. Of the great heath family, there is but a single Bahama species, Clethra tinifoUa Sw., and it has been reported only by Gardner, Brace and Dolley. It is also found in Jamaica, Trinidad, Mexico and South Amer- ica. The two species of the olive family given in this report are the only two found on the Islands. The Boraginaccce, Verhenacece, Lahiatce, Solanaceoe and Scrophulariacece are all fairly well represented, but the largest families on the Islands are the Ruhiacece and Co7npositw. The Rubiacece here consist principally of woody species, and the portion of woody species in the Com- positce is also greater than in temperate regions. The interesting family Len- tih'ulariacece contains three Bahama species, two of Utricularia, and Pingui- cula pumila Michx., all insectivorous plants. Families represented in the Bahamas but not included in our list are the following: Cycadacece, Potamo- getonacecB, Junca^ginacece, Hydrocharitacece, Liliacea?, Aristolochiacere, Ranun- culacece, Batidece, Papaveracece, Polygalacece, LytliraceoB, Onagraceoe, Primu- lacece, PhimhaginacecB, Ehenaccce., Cuscutacece, Tlydropltyllacece, Plantaginales. All except two of these include but one Bahama species. The relative importance of families, not particularly mentioned alDOve, 13 194 VEGETATION may be seen approximately by referring to the list of our collections. The large proportion of genera in comparison with the number of species has already been called attention to by Mrs. Northrop. The number of families represented by only one genus is also much larger than in more northern countries. With the exception of the AlgcB, the lower plants have been given little attention by collectors. The Myxomycetes listed in this report are the first ever collected from the Islands. Most of them w^ere found during a search of an hour on Mangrove Cay, Andros, and there is no doubt that many others might be brought to light by a more careful examination. Of the nineteen Fungi here reported, four were previously collected by Northrop and Hitch- cock. Northrop speaks" of the scarcity both of Fungi and Lichens, but, accord- ing to our observations. Fungi were not at all uncommon and Lichens were exceedingly abundant. The latter encrust the bark of most shrubs and trees, even in the mangrove growth along the coast. Of the forty Lichens collected by us, one (Blodgettia confervoides Harv.) is marine and its exact position is not definitely established. Of the Algce, seventeen of the forty-five collected had been previously reported by Northrop, or by Gardner, Brace and Dolley. Agardh has also described a number of Bahama Alg(X in various papers, and some have been included in other works. Dr. M. A. Howe, of the New York Botanical Garden, has visited the Bahamas since our return and made extensive collections of Algw on New Providence and several of the smaller northern islands. The eight liverworts of our list are all new to the Islands, none having been found before. Mrs. Northrop includes six mosses in her report, and these, with our two additional ones, make up the meager list of known Bahama forms. DISTRIBUTION OF THE BAHAMA FLORA. Both Hitchcock and Northrop have discussed the relationship of the Bahama flora to that of other countries, and each has given tables showing the distribution of the plants collected by them in a number of the West Indies and on the American continent. I have arranged the following table of 795 plants, comprising, in addition to my own, those reported by Hitchcock, Northrop, Grisebach, Urban, and Herrick, together with additional ones in the yet unpublished lists of Curtiss, Britton and Millspaugh. THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 195 Table Showing Distribution of Seven Hundred and Ninety-Five Flowering Plants AND Ferns, Indigenous to the Bahama Islands. Common to Bahama Islands and Cuba 536 Common to Bahama Islands, Mexico or Central America 311 Common to Bahama Islands and South America 282 Common to Bahama Islands and Southern Florida 322 Common to Bahama Islands and Southern United States 170 Peculiar to Bahama Islands 56 It will be seen from this table that there are about the same number of plants common to the Bahamas and Cuba as are common to the Bahamas and the southern United States including tropical Florida^, the numbers being 536 as compared to 492. It is, therefore, evident that a study of the Bahama flora does not indicate any ancient land connections either between Cuba on the one side or Florida on the other. ISTeither does it furnish any proof against the supposition of such land connections. The majority of the plants common to the Bahamas and to the southern United States, extend also into other tropical countries and it seems probable that these more widely distributed species have invaded both the Bahamas and Florida from the south. Of the 492 plants common to the Bahamas and the United States, there are 40 that are found only in these two regions. Their names and distribution are as follows : Pinus bahamensis Griseb. New Providence, Andros, Abaco, Great Bahama, and Berry Islands; Florida to North Carolina and Mississippi. Halophila engelmannii Aschers. Andros, South Bimini (Howe) ; Southern Florida. Eragrostis elliotti S. Wats. New Providence; Southern United States. Distichlis maritima Raf. (D. spicata (L.) Green.) New Providence, Watlings and Inagua Islands; Southern United States. Inodes palmetto (Walt.) Cook. (Sabal Palmetto (Watt.) R. & S.) New Provi- dence, Eleuthera, Watlings and Cat Islands; Southern United States. Coccothrinax jucunda Sarg. New Providence, Green Cay, Eleuthera, and Watlings Islands; Florida. Thrinax floridana Sargent. North Cat Cay (Millspaugh) ; Southern Florida. Pseiidophccnix sargentii Wendl. South Bimini (Millspaugh) ; Southern Florida. Aletris bracteata Northrop. Andros; Florida. Smilax beyrichii Kunth. New Providence; Southern United States. Smilax auriculata Walt. New Providence and Andros; Southern United States. Myrica cerifera L. New Providence and Andros; Southern United States. Ficus aurea Nutt. New Providence; Florida. Salicornia bigelovii Torr. Andros; Southern United States. Dondia linearis (Ell.) Millsp. New Providence; Southern Florida. Alternanthera maritima St. Hil. Andros; Southern Florida. Cassia aspera Michx. Eleuthera; Southern United States. Linum curtissii Small. New Providence; Florida. Xanthoxylon cribrosum Spr. Andros; Southern Florida. Poly gala boykinii Nutt. Andros; Southern United States. 196 VEGETATION '■ Sachsia bahamensis Urban. New Providence and Andros; Florida. Rhus blodgettii Kearney. North Cat Cay (Millspaugh); Key West, Florida. Vitis rotundifolia Michx. New Providence and Andros; Southern United States. Eugenia longipes Berg. New Providence, Andros and Eleuthera; Southern Florida. Jacquinia keyensis Mez. New Providence, Andros, Abaco, Eleuthera, Rum Cay, Long, Cat and Crooked Islands; Southern Florida. Mimusops floridana Engelm. Andros; Southern Florida. Cynoctonum sessilifoUa (T. & G.) Britton. Andros; Southern United States. Sabbatia campanulata (L.) Torr. New Providence, Andros and Cat Islands; South- ern United States. Asclepias pauper cula Michx. Abaco; Southern United States. Ipomcea sagittata Cav. (I. speciosa Walt.) New Providence; Southern United States. Scutellaria longifolia Small. Eleuthera; Southern Florida. (This species has not yet been published.) Solarium blodgettii Chapman. North Cat Cay (Millspaugh); Key West, Florida. Gerardia maritivia Raf. New Providence, Andros, Eleuthera and Abaco; Southern United States. Gerardia purpurea L. Andros; Southern United States. Pinguicula piiviila Michx. Andros; Southern United States. Eupatorium capilUfolium (Lam.) Small. New Providence; Southern United States. Erigeron quercifoHuvi Lam. New Providence and Andros; Southern United States. Baccharis angustifolia Michx. New Providence; Southern United States. Iva imbricata Walt. Andros; Southern United States. Willughbwya heterophylla Small. New Providence, Andros and Abaco; South Florida. As to the origin of these 40 species, it is difficult to say which have origi- nated in the United States and which in the Bahamas. Eragrostis elliotti S. Wats., Thrinax floridana Sarg., Pseudophcenix sargentii Wendl., Myrica cerifera L., Polygala hoyJcinii Nutt., Vitis rotundifolia Michx., Rhus blodgettii Kearney, Pinguicula pumila Michx. and Baccharis angustifolia Michx. have in all probability migrated from the United States to the Bahamas. As has already been remarked, Myrica may have been introduced by man. If now we divide the Bahama Islands into two groups, the first or north- eastern group, comprising Andros, ISTew Providence, Abaco, Great Bahama, the Berry Islands and their adjoining cays, and the second or southwestern group comprising Eleuthera and all the islands south of it, it will be seen from the above list that all except eight of the plants confined to the United States and the Bahamas are found only on the northwestern group. This is what we might expect from the proximity of this group to the Continent. There are at present, so far as 1 have been able to ascertain, fifty-six endemic species reported from the Bahama Islands. These, with their dis- tribution, are as follows : THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 197 Eragrostis bahamensis Hitch. Inagua. Thrinax bahamensis Cook. New Providence, Andros, Greeu Cay, Eleuthera, Cat and Watlings Islands. (Authorities differ as to this. According to Dr. Britton, this is identical with Thrinax niicrocarpa Sarg. from Florida.) Paurotis androsana Cook. Andros. Cyclospathe northropi Cook. Andros and Eleuthera. HymenocalUs arenicola Northrop. New Providence and Andros. Epidendruvi altissimum Bateman. Cat Island and Eleuthera. Epidendriim gracile Lindl. (Given by Grisebach as from the Bahamas, but he adds no precise locality.) Epidendruvi rufum, Lindl. (Given by Grisebach as from the Bahamas, but he adds no precise locality.) Epidendrum bahamense Griseb. (Given by Grisebach as from the Bahamas, but he adds no precise locality.) Phoradendron northropicc Urban. Andros. Torrubia cokeri Britton. Eleuthera. Acacia choriophylla Benth. New Providence and Andros. Pithecolobium mucronatum. Britton. Long Island. Mimosa bahamensis Benth. Fortune Island and Inagua. Pithecolobium bahamense Northrop. New Providence and Andros. Cassia caribcra Northrop. Andros. Ccesalpinia ovalifolia Urban. New Providence and Andros. Ccesalpinia lucida Urban. New Providence and Eleuthera. Linum bahamense Northrop. New Providence and Andros. Erythroxylon reticulatum Northrop. Andros. Buxus bahamensis Baker. New Providence, Andros and Watlings Islands. Phyllanthus bahamensis Urban. Andros. Euphorbia cayensis Millsp. Rum and Joulters Cays. Salvia bahamensis Britton. New Providence. Croton hjalmarsonii Griseb. Fortune and Inagua Islands. Crassopetalum coriaceiim Northrop. Andros. Thouinia discolor Griseb. New Providence, Andros, Eleuthera, Cat, Fortune and Inagua Islands. Reynosia northropiana Urban. Andros. Sphwralcea abutiloides Endl. New Providence. i; Malvavisaus cokeri Britton. Watlings Island. Pavonia bahamensis Hitch. Fortune Island. Helicteres spiralis Northrop. Andros, New Providence and Eleuthera Islands. Waltheria bahamensis Britton. New Providence. Xylosma ilicifolia Northrop. New Providence, Andros and Eleuthera Islands. Passiflora pectinata Griseb. New Providence, Andros and Turks Islands. Bourreria thymifoUa Griseb. Rum Cay and Turks Islands. Terminalia spinosa Northrop. Andros. Casearia baha^nensis Urban. Andros. Bumelia loranthifolia (Pierre) Britton. New Providence. Andros and Eleuthera. Metastelma eggersii Schttr. Fortune Island. Metastelma barbatwm Northrop. New Providence and Andros Islands. Plumiera baharnensis Urban. Acklin Island. Cordia bahamensis Urban. Fortune and New Providence Islands. Heliotropium nanum Northrop. Andros. Tecoma bahamensis Northrop. New Providence and Andros Islands. Jacaranda bahamensis R. Br. Andros. 198 VEGETATION Jacaranda ccerulea Griseb. New Providence and Cat Islands. Gatestxea paniculata Northrop. Andres and Green Cay. Scolosanthus bahamensis Britton. New Providence. Ernodea coJceri Britton. Abaco. Stenostomum myrtifolium Griseb. (Given in Grisebach as from the Bahamas, but he adds no precise locality.) Myrstiphyllum ligustifoUum Northrop. Andros. Scolosanthus bahamensis Britton. New Providence. Anguria keithii Northrop. Andros. Eupatorium bahamense Northrop. Andros. Vernonia bahamensis Griseb. New Providence, Andros, Cat and Inagua Islands. Among the endemic species mentioned by Mrs. Northrop are included Croton eleuteria Sw., which was found by Hitchcock on Grand Cayman, and Vanilla articulata Northrop, which she gives in her table of distribution as also from Cuba. To the endemic species listed above we may probably add Zamia tenuis Willd., as it is not certainly known outside of the Bahamas. The fifty-eight flowering plants that, so far as I have been able to de- termine, have not before been reported from the Bahamas, are given with their distribution in the table on the page following. In discussing the relationships of the Bahama flora, we must not forget that the limestone soil and exposure to salt, drought and wind, to which its flora is subjected, would preclude the occurrence in those Islands of many groups of plants that are particularly partial to certain sorts of soil or to fresh water, shade and low temperature. When this is kept in mind, we are not surprised at the absence of such families as Araliacece and Piperacem, although both are quite common in the larger islands of the West Indies, and the Araliaceai in the United States also. Peperomia mag nolicef alia (Jacq.) C. DC, for example, is found in the Bermudas, in south Florida and in several of the AVest Indies, but neither it nor any other member of its family is found in the Bahamas. The absence of Selaginella, Lycopodium and Equisetum is also in all probability due to uncongenial conditions and not to the lack of means of distribution. On the other hand, the absence of Sapindus saponaria L. is difficult to account for, as it is abundant in Florida. Jamaica, and Central and South America, and in these countries seems able to endure sandy soil and maritime conditions. The singular rarity of Trihulus in the Bahamas has already been remarked upon. The distribution of plants among the different islands of the group is a matter of considerable interest. As is to be expected, the littoral plants are practically identical in all the islands, and the majority of other forms also show no particular anomalies of distribution. Attention has already been GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XXXV H M THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 199 ABLE SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF FLOWERING PLANTS COLLECTED DURING THE BAHAMA EXPEDITION AND NOT PREVIOUSLT REPORTED FROM THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. Geographic Distribution. Species. d ca .a < Andros. Cat Island. Cuba. Eleuthera. a p a a 6 a 3 O a o '5 S CS O c a a a d ■ is; 'it > a °< ^^ ^ t Oi o 5Z d u 5 o t-l o S s i a a o 02 .a X) .a . 3 3 3 Oi o o MM 50 C m M 3 . s a ^ o ig 3 . O -w ^ a m to OJ .a V a 0) fa 4, 0) a a OJ a) ^^ 1 * * 1 * • * Andropoyon virginicus L * Panicuin elephantipes Mees * * * • ■ • * * * Cypcrus vahlii Strud * * * * * • * • * • * * Ficus sapotifolia Kunth. & Benche * * • * * * * * * * • • * * • * Altemantheta maritima St. Hil." • * Petivcria aUiacea L * * • * • Torrubia ohtusata (Jacq.) Brltton Torrubia cokeri Britton * * * * . jt . * * * * 1 * * * * * * ■ * • * * « * Crotdii iliNctilor Willd • * • • 1 * 1 1,1 .. * * Securinefia acklothamnus (Griseb.) Muell. Arg. Qyminda grisebachii Sarg * • * • ••1. 1 * * * 1 * * 1 « ■• *!•• * * * •'■ * * * * « •■ * * 4 1 Bumelid Joranthifolia (Pierre) Britton * •• 1 * . * • • * * * * .* • MetastrlDia hrachijstephanum Griseb. (?) .... . •' * ' * Gordht ciiUnilroxtnrhiin R. & P 1 * * * * * * ••• « * * * * ♦ * * * * 4 * * 1 1 * * " \" 1 Ernridea rakcri Britton <' .J.. * * * .. « 1 jj